Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, 16th edition

1. Introduction
   • 1.1 Definition of Surveying
   • 1.2 Geomatics
   • 1.3 History of Surveying
   • 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys
   • 1.5 Importance of Surveying
   • 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys
   • 1.7 Surveying Safety
   • 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems
   • 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies
   • 1.10 The Surveying Profession
   • 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations
   • 1.12 Surveying on the Internet
   • 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying
2. Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes
   • Part I: Units and Significant Figures
   • 2.1 Introduction
   • 2.2 Units of Measurement
   • 2.3 International System of Units (SI)
   • 2.4 Significant Figures
   • 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers
   • Part II: Field Notes
   • 2.6 Field Notes
   • 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes
   • 2.8 Types of Field Books
   • 2.9 Kinds of Notes
   • 2.10 Arrangements of Notes
   • 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes
   • 2.12 Introduction to Survey Controllers
   • 2.13 Transfer of Files from Survey Controllers
   • 2.14 Digital Data File Management
   • 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Controllers
3. Theory of Errors in Observations
   • 3.1 Introduction
   • 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations
   • 3.3 Errors in Measurements
   • 3.4 Mistakes
   • 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations
   • 3.6 Types of Errors
   • 3.7 Precision and Accuracy
   • 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
   • 3.9 Probability
   • 3.10 Most Probable Value
   • 3.11 Residuals
   • 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors
   • 3.13 General Laws of Probability
   • 3.14 Measures of Precision
   • 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation
   • 3.16 The 50%, 90%, and 95% Errors
   • 3.17 Error Propagation
   • 3.18 Applications
   • 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations
   • 3.20 Weights of Observations
   • 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment
4. Leveling — Theory, Methods, and Equipment
   • Part I: Leveling — Theory and Methods
   • 4.1 Introduction
   • 4.2 Definitions
   • 4.3 North American Vertical Datum
   • 4.4 Curvature and Refraction
   • 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation
   • Part II: Equipment for Differential Leveling
   • 4.6 Categories of Levels
   • 4.7 Telescopes
   • 4.8 Level Vials
   • 4.9 Tilting Levels
   • 4.10 Automatic Levels
   • 4.11 Digital Levels
   • 4.12 Tripods
   • 4.13 Hand Levels
   • 4.14 Level Rods
   • 4.15 Turning Points
   • 4.16 Testing and Adjusting Levels
5. Leveling — Field Procedures and Computations
   • 5.1 Introduction
   • 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level
   • 5.3 Duties of a Rod Person
   • 5.4 Differential Leveling
   • 5.5 Precision
   • 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits
   • 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling
   • 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling
   • 5.9 Profile Leveling
   • 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling
   • 5.11 Use of the Hand Level
   • 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling
   • 5.13 Mistakes
   • 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes
   • 5.15 Using Software
6. Distance Measurement
   • Part I: Methods for Measuring Distances
   • 6.1 Introduction
   • 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements
   • 6.3 Pacing
   • 6.4 Odometer Readings
   • 6.5 Optical Rangefinders
   • 6.6 Tacheometry
   • 6.7 Subtense Bar
   • Part II: Distance Measurements by Taping
   • 6.8 Introduction to Taping
   • 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories
   • 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment
   • 6.11 Taping on Level Ground
   • 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground
   • 6.13 Slope Measurements
   • 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping
   • Part III: Electronic Distance Measurement
   • 6.15 Introduction
   • 6.16 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy
   • 6.17 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement
   • 6.18 Electro-Optical Instruments
   • 6.19 Total Station Instruments
   • 6.20 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors
   • 6.21 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances
   • 6.22 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement
   • 6.23 Using Software
7. Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings
   • 7.1 Introduction
   • 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement
   • 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles
   • 7.4 Direction of a Line
   • 7.5 Azimuths
   • 7.6 Bearings
   • 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings
   • 7.8 Computing Azimuths
   • 7.9 Computing Bearings
   • 7.10 The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field
   • 7.11 Magnetic Declination
   • 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination
   • 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination
   • 7.14 Local Attraction
   • 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems
   • 7.16 Mistakes
8. Total Station Instruments; Angle Observations
   • PART I: Total Station Instruments
   • 8.1 Introduction
   • 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments
   • 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments
   • 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument
   • 8.5 Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument
   • 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments
   • PART II: Angle Observations
   • 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances
   • 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments
   • 8.9 Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method
   • 8.10 Closing the Horizon
   • 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles
   • 8.12 Observing Azimuths
   • 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles
   • 8.14 Sights and Marks
   • 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line
   • 8.16 Balancing-in
   • 8.17 Random Traverse
   • 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences
   • 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and their Accessories
   • 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work
   • 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations
   • 8.22 Mistakes
9. Traversing
   • 9.1 Introduction
   • 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions
   • 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths
   • 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations
   • 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations
   • 9.6 Traverse Field Notes
   • 9.7 Angle Misclosure
   • 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments
   • 9.9 Radial Traversing
   • 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing
   • 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing
10. Traverse Computations
    • 10.1 Introduction
    • 10.2 Balancing Angles
    • 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings
    • 10.4 Departures and Latitudes
    • 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions
    • 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision
    • 10.7 Traverse Adjustment
    • 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates
    • 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations
    • 10.10 Inversing
    • 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions
    • 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys
    • 10.13 Use of Open Traverses
    • 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems
    • 10.15 Traverse Computations using Computers
    • 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations
    • 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations
11. Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations
    • 11.1 Introduction
    • 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles
    • 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line
    • 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions
    • 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle
    • 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles
    • 11.7 Three-Point Resection
    • 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
    • 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem
    • 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection
    • 11.11 Software
12. Area
    • 12.1 Introduction
    • 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area
    • 12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures
    • 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines
    • 12.5 Area by Coordinates
    • 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method
    • 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries
    • 12.8 Partitioning of Lands
    • 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps
    • 12.10 Software
    • 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas
    • 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas
13. Global Navigation Satellite Systems — Introduction and Principles of Operation
    • 13.1 Introduction
    • 13.2 Overview of GPS
    • 13.3 The GPS Signal
    • 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems
    • 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning
    • 13.6 Errors in Observations
    • 13.7 Differential Positioning
    • 13.8 Kinematic Methods
    • 13.9 Relative Positioning
    • 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems
    • 13.11 The Future
14. Global Navigation Satellite Systems — Static Surveys
    • 14.1 Introduction
    • 14.2 Field Procedures in Static GNSS Surveys
    • 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys
    • 14.4 Performing Static Surveys
    • 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis
    • 14.6 Things to Consider
    • 14.7 A Method for Obtaining Orthometric Height Differences Using GNSS
    • 14.8 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys
    • 14.9 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys
15. Global Navigation Satellite Systems — Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.1 Introduction
    • 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.3 Initialization Techniques
    • 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.8 Real-Time Networks
    • 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.10 Machine Guidance and Control
    • 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys
    • 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys
16. Adjustments by Least Squares
    • 16.1 Introduction
    • 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares
    • 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method
    • 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment
    • 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities
    • 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits
    • 16.7 Propagation of Errors
    • 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors
    • 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys
    • 16.10 The Error Ellipse
    • 16.11 Adjustment Procedures
    • 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations
    • 16.13 Software
    • 16.14 Conclusions
17. Mapping Surveys
    • 17.1 Introduction
    • 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys
    • 17.3 Map Scale
    • 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys
    • 17.5 Contours
    • 17.6 Characteristics of Contours
    • 17.7 Method of Locating Contours
    • 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems
    • 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details
    • 17.10 Planning a Laser-Scanning Survey
    • 17.11 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
    • 17.12 Selection of Field Method
    • 17.13 Working with Survey Controllers and Field-to-Finish Software
    • 17.14 Hydrographic Surveys
    • 17.15 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys
    • 17.16 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys
18. Mapping
    • 18.1 Introduction
    • 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information
    • 18.3 National Mapping Program
    • 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping
    • 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures
    • 18.6 Map Design
    • 18.7 Map Layout
    • 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures
    • 18.9 Contour Interval
    • 18.10 Plotting Contours
    • 18.11 Lettering
    • 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements
    • 18.13 Drafting Materials
    • 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems
    • 18.15 Migrating Maps between Software Packages
    • 18.16 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping
    • 18.17 The Importance of Metadata
    • 18.18 Sources of Error in Mapping
    • 18.19 Mistakes in Mapping
19. Control Surveys and GeodetIc Reductions
    • 19.1 Introduction
    • 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid
    • 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole
    • 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature
    • 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical
    • 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames
    • 19.7 Transforming Coordinates Between Reference Frames
    • 19.8 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys
    • 19.9 The National Spatial Reference System
    • 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network
    • 19.11 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network
    • 19.12 Control Point Descriptions
    • 19.13 Field Procedures for Conventional Horizontal Control Surveys
    • 19.14 Field Procedures for Vertical-Control Surveys
    • 19.15 Reduction of Field Observations to their Geodetic Values
    • 19.16 Geodetic Position Computations
    • 19.17 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System
    • 19.18 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations
    • 19.19 Software
20. State Plane Coordinates and Other Map Projections
    • 20.1 Introduction
    • 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems
    • 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
    • 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection
    • 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD 27 and NAD 83
    • 20.6 Computing SPCS 83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System
    • 20.7 Computing SPCS 83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System
    • 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids
    • 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations
    • 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another
    • 20.11 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection
    • 20.12 Other Map Projections
    • 20.13 Ground Versus Grid Problem
    • 20.14 Proposed Changes to SPCS in 2022
    • 20.15 Map Projection Software
21. Boundary Surveys
    • 21.1 Introduction
    • 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys
    • 21.3 Historical Perspectives
    • 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds
    • 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System
    • 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates
    • 21.7 Retracement Surveys
    • 21.8 Subdivision Surveys
    • 21.9 Partitioning Land
    • 21.10 Registration of Title
    • 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements
    • 21.12 Condominium Surveys
    • 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems
    • 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys
    • 21.15 Mistakes
22. Surveys of the Public Lands
    • 22.1 Introduction
    • 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands
    • 22.3 Initial Point
    • 22.4 Principal Meridian
    • 22.5 Baseline
    • 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines)
    • 22.7 Guide Meridians
    • 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines
    • 22.9 Designation of Townships
    • 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships
    • 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections
    • 22.12 Subdivision of Sections
    • 22.13 Fractional Sections
    • 22.14 Notes
    • 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps
    • 22.16 Marking Corners
    • 22.17 Witness Corners
    • 22.18 Meander Corners
    • 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners
    • 22.20 Accuracy of Public Land Surveys
    • 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section, and Smaller Subdivision
    • 22.22 BLM Land Information System
    • 22.23 Sources of Error
    • 22.24 Mistakes
23. Construction Surveys
    • 23.1 Introduction
    • 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys
    • 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control
    • 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline
    • 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades
    • 23.6 Computing the Bend Angles in Pipelines
    • 23.7 Staking Out a Building
    • 23.8 Staking Out Highways
    • 23.9 Other Construction Surveys
    • 23.10 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments
    • 23.11 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment
    • 23.12 Machine Guidance and Control
    • 23.13 As-built Surveys with Laser Scanning
    • 23.14 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys
    • 23.15 Mistakes
24. Horizontal Curves
    • 24.1 Introduction
    • 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve
    • 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas
    • 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing
    • 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles
    • 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords
    • 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
    • 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
    • 24.9 Setups on Curve
    • 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
    • 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords
    • 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve
    • 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates
    • 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations
    • 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets
    • 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems
    • 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves
    • 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
    • 24.19 Spirals
    • 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments
    • 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves
    • 24.22 Mistakes
25. Vertical Curves
    • 25.1 Introduction
    • 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve
    • 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve
    • 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve
    • 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent-Offset Equation
    • 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola
    • 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion
    • 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve
    • 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations
    • 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve
    • 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point
    • 25.12 Sight Distance
    • 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying out Vertical Curves
    • 25.14 Mistakes
26. Volumes
    • 26.1 Introduction
    • 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement
    • 26.3 The Cross-Section Method
    • 26.4 Types of Cross Sections
    • 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula
    • 26.6 Determining End Areas
    • 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts
    • 26.8 Prismoidal Formula
    • 26.9 Volume Computations
    • 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method
    • 26.11 Contour-Area Method
    • 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge
    • 26.13 Software
    • 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes
    • 26.15 Mistakes
27. Photogrammetry
    • 27.1 Introduction
    • 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry
    • 27.3 Aerial Cameras
    • 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs
    • 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs
    • 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph
    • 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph
    • 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph
    • 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
    • 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax
    • 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing
    • 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax
    • 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry
    • 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
    • 27.15 Orthophotos
    • 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry
    • 27.17 Flight Planning
    • 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems
    • 27.19 Remote Sensing
    • 27.20 Software
    • 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry
    • 27.22 Mistakes
28. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems
    • 28.1 Introduction
    • 28.2 Land Information Systems
    • 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications
    • 28.4 Spatial Data
    • 28.5 Nonspatial Data
    • 28.6 Data Format Conversions
    • 28.7 Creating GIS Databases
    • 28.8 Metadata
    • 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions
    • 28.10 GIS Applications
    • 28.11 Data Sources

Appendix A: Tape Correction Problems

Appendix B: Example Noteforms

Appendix C: Astronomic Observations

Appendix D: Using the Worksheets from the Companion Website

Appendix E: Introduction to Matrices

Appendix F: U.S. State Plane Coordinate System Defining Parameters

Appendix G: Answers to Selected Problems

Appendix H: Commonly Used Conversions and Abbreviations