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A&P Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards (2)

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Terms in this set (34)

  • Characteristics of living organisms

    Living organisms show boundaries, metabolism, irritability & responsiveness, movement, growth & maintenance, and reproduction. They regulate internal processes and maintain homeostasis.

  • Conditions that support life

    Water, food/nutrients, oxygen, appropriate temperature, and suitable atmospheric pressure support life by enabling metabolism, energy use, enzyme activity, and gas exchange.

  • Major fluid compartments and key ions

    Intracellular fluid (ICF) is inside cells with major cation K+. Extracellular fluid (ECF) is outside cells, including interstitial fluid and plasma, with major cation Na+.

  • Homeostasis and regulated variables

    Homeostasis is the dynamic maintenance of internal conditions within a normal range. Regulated variables fluctuate around a set point, e.g., body temperature, blood glucose, pH, and blood pressure.

  • Homeostatic feedback loop components

    Stimulus → receptor → afferent pathway → control center → efferent pathway → effector → response that alters the stimulus.

  • Negative vs positive feedback

    Negative feedback reverses deviations to maintain stability (e.g., temperature control). Positive feedback amplifies changes until a specific endpoint (e.g., labor contractions).

  • Kinetic vs potential energy

    Kinetic energy is energy of motion. Potential energy is stored energy due to position or structure, like chemical bonds or ion gradients.

  • Atomic structure basics

    Atoms have a nucleus with protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral), surrounded by electrons (negative) in energy levels. Atomic number = protons; mass number = protons + neutrons.

  • Difference between ions and isotopes

    Ions are charged atoms formed by electron gain or loss. Isotopes are atoms with the same protons but different neutrons, some radioactive.

  • Covalent vs ionic bonds

    Covalent bonds share electron pairs (nonpolar equal, polar unequal). Ionic bonds transfer electrons, creating charged ions attracted to each other.

  • Properties and roles of water

    Water is polar, an excellent solvent, participates in reactions, transports substances, lubricates, cushions tissues, and stabilizes temperature due to high heat capacity.

  • Hydrogen bonding importance

    Weak attraction between partially positive hydrogen and electronegative atoms; gives water cohesion, surface tension, temperature stability, and stabilizes proteins and DNA.

  • pH scale and acid-base definitions

    pH measures hydrogen ion concentration. Acids donate H+ (pH < 7), bases accept H+ or release OH− (pH > 7). Normal blood pH is 7.35–7.45.

  • Carbonic acid–bicarbonate buffer system

    H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3− buffers pH by binding or releasing H+. Lungs regulate CO2; kidneys regulate H+ and bicarbonate.

  • General features of organic molecules

    Carbon-based compounds with C–C and C–H bonds. Functional groups determine polarity/reactivity. Polymers form by dehydration synthesis and break by hydrolysis.

  • Four major classes of organic molecules

    Lipids: energy storage, membranes, hormones.
    Proteins: enzymes, structure, signaling.
    Carbohydrates: energy, recognition.
    Nucleic acids: genetic info, energy transfer (ATP).

  • Plasma membrane structure

    Fluid-mosaic model: phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads outward, hydrophobic tails inward; cholesterol stabilizes fluidity; proteins serve as channels, receptors, enzymes, and markers.

  • Types of cellular junctions

    Tight junctions: seal cells.
    Desmosomes: anchor cells.
    Gap junctions: allow ion/small molecule passage.

  • Membrane specializations

    Microvilli: increase surface area.
    Cilia: move material.
    Flagellum: propels cell.

  • Passive transport mechanisms

    Simple diffusion: down gradient, no ATP.
    Facilitated diffusion: via carriers/channels.
    Osmosis: water moves toward higher solute concentration.

  • Active transport types

    Primary: ATP directly used (e.g., Na+/K+ pump).
    Secondary: uses ion gradients (symport/antiport).

  • Vesicular transport methods

    Endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated.
    Exocytosis: vesicle release.
    Transcytosis: across cell.

  • Protein synthesis overview

    DNA → transcription → RNA processing → mRNA → translation by ribosome → polypeptide → folding/modification to functional protein.

  • DNA and RNA nucleotide bases and pairing

    DNA bases: A, T, C, G; RNA bases: A, U, C, G.
    Pairing: DNA A–T, DNA C–G; during transcription DNA A pairs with RNA U.

  • Cell cycle phases

    Interphase: G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation).
    Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis.

  • Necrosis vs apoptosis

    Necrosis: uncontrolled cell death causing inflammation.
    Apoptosis: regulated cell death without inflammation.

  • Epidermis layers

    From deep to superficial: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin only), corneum.

  • Functions of skin cell types

    Keratinocytes: produce keratin.
    Melanocytes: produce melanin.
    Dendritic cells: immune surveillance.
    Merkel cells: sensory.

  • Skin appendages and their functions

    Glands: sebaceous (sebum), eccrine (sweat), apocrine (sweat at puberty).
    Hair: protection, sensation.
    Nails: protect digits.

  • Vitamin D synthesis and function

    UVB converts skin cholesterol derivative to vitamin D3; liver/kidney activate it to calcitriol, which increases calcium and phosphate absorption for bone health.

  • Skin protection mechanisms

    Biological: acid mantle, sebum, microbiota, defensins.
    Physical: keratin, lipids, cell junctions, collagen, elastic fibers.

  • Thermoregulation by the skin

    Heat loss via radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation. Vasodilation and sweating increase cooling; vasoconstriction conserves heat; subcutaneous fat insulates.

  • Burn degrees and characteristics

    First-degree: epidermis only, red, painful.
    Second-degree: epidermis + dermis, blisters.
    Third-degree: full thickness, may be painless.

  • Skin cancer types and features

    Basal cell carcinoma: from stratum basale, slow-growing.
    Squamous cell carcinoma: from keratinocytes, can metastasize.
    Melanoma: from melanocytes, highly metastatic.