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Anatomy & Physiology: Bones, Joints, and Lever Systems

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  • Functions of bones
    • Support
    • Protection
    • Movement
    • Mineral and growth factor storage
    • Blood cell formation
    • Triglyceride (fat) storage
    • Hormone production (Osteocalcin)
  • Types of cartilage
    • Hyaline cartilage
    • Elastic cartilage
    • Fibrocartilage
  • Growth types of cartilage
    • Appositional growth: growth at cartilage surface
    • Interstitial growth: growth from within cartilage
  • Classes of bones
    • Long bones
    • Short bones
    • Flat bones
    • Irregular bones
    • Sesamoid bones
  • Structure of a typical long bone
    • Diaphysis: shaft
    • Epiphyses: ends
    • Articular cartilage: covers joint surfaces
    • Epiphyseal plate/line: growth region
    • Periosteum and Endosteum: bone membranes
  • Bone tissue cells
    • Osteogenic cells: stem cells
    • Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells
    • Osteocytes: mature bone cells
    • Bone-lining cells: maintain matrix
    • Osteoclasts: bone-resorbing cells
  • Microscopic anatomy of compact bone
    • Osteon: structural unit
    • Central canal: contains blood vessels
    • Perforating canals: connect osteons
    • Lacunae: house osteocytes
    • Canaliculi: connect lacunae
  • Chemical composition of bone
    • Osteoid: organic matrix of ground substance and collagen fibers
    • Hydroxyapatites: calcium phosphate crystals providing hardness
  • Bone formation processes
    • Endochondral ossification: bone develops from cartilage
    • Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from fibrous membrane
  • Bone growth types
    • Interstitial growth: lengthening of bone
    • Appositional growth: widening of bone
  • Epiphyseal plate zones
    1. Resting (quiescent) zone
    2. Proliferation (growth) zone
    3. Hypertrophic zone
    4. Calcification zone
    5. Ossification (osteogenic) zone
  • Hormones regulating bone growth
    • Growth hormone
    • Thyroid hormone
    • Testosterone (males)
    • Estrogens (females)
  • Bone remodeling facts
    • Spongy bone replaced every 3-4 years
    • Compact bone replaced every 10 years
    • Balance of bone deposition and bone resorption
  • Hormonal control of bone remodeling
    • Parathyroid hormone: increases blood calcium by stimulating resorption
    • Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium by inhibiting resorption
  • Wolff’s Law
    Bone grows and remodels in response to the mechanical stresses placed on it.
  • Steps of fracture repair
    1. Hematoma formation
    2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
    3. Bony callus formation
    4. Bone remodeling
  • Functional classifications of joints
    • Synarthroses: immovable joints
    • Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints
    • Diarthroses: freely movable joints
  • Structural classifications of joints
    • Bony (Synostosis)
    • Fibrous: sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses
    • Cartilaginous: synchondroses, symphyses
    • Synovial
  • General structures of synovial joints
    • Articular cartilage
    • Joint cavity
    • Articular capsule: fibrous layer and synovial membrane
    • Synovial fluid
    • Reinforcing ligaments
  • Types of synovial joint movements
    • Gliding
    • Angular: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction
    • Rotation: medial and lateral
  • Types of synovial joints
    • Plane
    • Hinge
    • Pivot
    • Condylar
    • Saddle
    • Ball-and-socket
  • Common joint injuries
    • Cartilage tears
    • Sprains
    • Dislocations (luxations)
  • Inflammatory and degenerative joint conditions
    • Bursitis
    • Tendonitis
    • Arthritis: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis, Lyme disease
  • Components of a lever system
    • Lever
    • Fulcrum (F)
    • Effort (E)
    • Load/Resistance (R)
  • Classes of lever systems
    • First-class lever: E-F-R
    • Second-class lever: F-R-E
    • Third-class lever: F-E-R
  • Mechanical advantage vs. disadvantage in levers
    • Mechanical advantage: power lever, load is closer to fulcrum
    • Mechanical disadvantage: speed lever, effort is closer to fulcrum