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Anatomy & Physiology: Cardiovascular and Blood Systems

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  • Heart coverings
    The heart is covered by the fibrous pericardium, parietal serous pericardium, and visceral serous pericardium (epicardium), with the pericardial cavity between the serous layers.
  • Layers of the heart wall
    The heart wall has three layers: epicardium (outer), myocardium (muscle layer), and endocardium (inner lining).
  • Four chambers of the heart
    The heart has four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle.
  • Major anatomical landmarks of the heart
    Key landmarks include the interatrial septum, interventricular septum, coronary sulcus, and interventricular sulci.
  • Structures of the atria
    Atria contain auricles, pectinate muscles, and the fossa ovalis. Major vessels include the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus, and pulmonary veins.
  • Structures of the ventricles
    Ventricles have trabeculae carneae, papillary muscles, and chordae tendineae. Outflow vessels are the pulmonary trunk and ascending aorta.
  • Four heart valves
    The heart valves are the tricuspid valve, bicuspid (mitral) valve, pulmonary semilunar valve, and aortic semilunar valve.
  • Function of heart valves
    Heart valves prevent backflow and ensure one-way blood flow through the heart chambers and vessels.
  • Blood flow through the heart
    Blood flows from atria to ventricles, then to lungs via the pulmonary circuit or to the body via the systemic circuit.
  • Coronary circulation arteries
    Key arteries include the right coronary artery, posterior interventricular artery, marginal artery, left coronary artery, anterior interventricular artery (LAD), and circumflex artery.
  • Microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle
    Cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs forming a functional syncytium with contractile and pacemaker cells.
  • Autorhythmic pacemaker cells
    Pacemaker cells have an unstable resting membrane potential called the pacemaker potential that initiates heart action potentials.
  • Phases of contractile cardiac muscle action potential
    Phases include depolarization, plateau, and repolarization.
  • Intrinsic conduction pathway of the heart
    Pathway: sinoatrial (SA) node → atrioventricular (AV) node → AV bundle (Bundle of His) → right and left bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.
  • ECG wave components
    P wave: atrial depolarization, QRS complex: ventricular depolarization, T wave: ventricular repolarization.
  • Cardiac cycle phases
    Includes atrial systole, ventricular systole, and relaxation period.
  • Stroke volume and cardiac output formula
    Cardiac output (CO) is calculated as \(CO=HR\times SV\), where HR is heart rate and SV is stroke volume.
  • Factors regulating stroke volume
    Stroke volume is regulated by preload (Frank-Starling Law), contractility, and afterload.
  • Factors regulating heart rate
    Heart rate is influenced by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation, hormones, and ions like K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Na⁺.
  • Three layers of blood vessel walls
    Blood vessels have three tunics: tunica intima (inner), tunica media (middle), and tunica externa (adventitia) (outer).
  • Types of arteries
    Arteries are classified as elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles based on structure and function.
  • Types of capillaries
    Capillaries include continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid types, differing in permeability.
  • Vein structure and function
    Veins have valves to prevent backflow and serve as blood reservoirs returning blood to the heart.
  • Blood pressure components
    Blood pressure depends on cardiac output, vascular resistance, and blood volume.
  • Short-term neural regulation of blood pressure
    Includes vasomotor tone, baroreceptor reflexes, chemoreceptor reflexes, and higher brain center influences.
  • Long-term blood pressure regulation
    Regulated by the renin-angiotensin mechanism and aldosterone-mediated blood volume control.
  • Blood composition
    Blood consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets).
  • Erythrocyte function
    Erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon dioxide using hemoglobin.
  • Hemostasis stages
    Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.