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Anatomy & Physiology: Cardiovascular, Immune, and Respiratory Systems

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  • What happens during ventricular systole?

    Ventricles contract, AV valves close causing the "lub" sound, pressure rises, semilunar valves open, and blood ejects into the aorta (left ventricle) and pulmonary trunk (right ventricle).

  • Difference between systole and diastole

    Systole means squeeze (contraction), and diastole means relax/fill (relaxation).

  • Two major types of myocardial cells

    Contractile cells that contract and autorhythmic cells that create electrical signals.

  • Role of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle

    They connect cardiac muscle cells so the heart contracts as one unit.

  • Phases of the cardiac cycle

    Atria fill, atrial systole, ventricular filling, ventricular systole, and relaxation (diastole).

  • Formula for cardiac output (CO)

    CO = HR × SV, where HR is heart rate and SV is stroke volume.

  • Factors that increase cardiac output

    Increased heart rate, increased venous return, and stronger contractions.

  • Primary function of capillaries

    Exchange of gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones due to their thin walls and pressure gradients.

  • Mechanisms that aid venous return

    Skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, valves in veins, and vasoconstriction.

  • Relationship between venous return and cardiac output

    Increased venous return leads to increased stroke volume, which increases cardiac output.

  • Major factors affecting blood pressure

    Cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, and vessel elasticity.

  • Blood pressure formula

    BP = CO × PR, where PR is peripheral resistance.

  • Effects of vasoconstriction on blood vessels

    Vessels narrow, resistance increases, and blood pressure rises.

  • Effects of vasodilation on blood vessels

    Vessels widen, resistance decreases, and blood pressure falls.

  • First line of defense in immunity

    Physical and chemical barriers like skin, mucus, tears, and stomach acid that prevent pathogen entry.

  • Components of the second line of defense

    Innate defenses including inflammation, fever, phagocytes, and complement proteins.

  • Third line of defense in immunity

    Adaptive immunity involving B cells, T cells, and antibodies.

  • What is hyperemia?

    Increased blood flow to tissue causing redness and heat, often during inflammation.

  • Role of IgG antibody from mother to fetus

    IgG crosses the placenta providing passive immunity to the fetus temporarily.

  • Complement fixation effects

    Activates complement proteins causing inflammation, cell lysis, and opsonization.

  • General sequence of viral replication

    Attachment, penetration, replication, assembly, and release using host cells.

  • What is opsonization?

    Pathogens are coated to make phagocytosis easier, effectively "tagging enemies for destruction."

  • Definition of immune competence

    The ability of the immune system to recognize self versus nonself; T and B cells become immunocompetent before activation.

  • What stimulates erythropoiesis?

    Erythropoietin from kidneys and low oxygen levels stimulate red blood cell production.

  • Purpose of antibody agglutination

    Antibodies clump pathogens together to make them easier to destroy.

  • What is diapedesis?

    White blood cells squeezing through capillary walls into tissues during inflammation.

  • Functions of major white blood cells

    Neutrophils: bacteria/phagocytosis; Lymphocytes: adaptive immunity; Monocytes: macrophages; Eosinophils: parasites/allergies; Basophils: histamine/inflammation.

  • What is lung compliance?

    How easily lungs stretch; high compliance means lungs expand easily, low compliance means stiff lungs and harder breathing.

  • Factors affecting gas diffusion in lungs

    Pressure gradients, membrane thickness, and surface area.

  • Role of surfactant in alveoli

    Reduces surface tension to prevent alveolar collapse, very important for lung function.

  • Normal arterial pH range

    Between 7.35 and 7.45; below is acidosis, above is alkalosis.

  • Main respiratory centers controlling breathing

    Medulla and pons control breathing rate and depth, stimulated mainly by increased CO₂.