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Anatomy & Physiology: Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive, and Embryology Key Concepts

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  • What is the myocardium?
    The myocardium is the muscular layer of the heart wall made of cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes, responsible for powerful, rhythmic contractions that pump blood.
  • Purpose of intercalated discs in the heart
    Intercalated discs connect cardiac muscle cells mechanically via desmosomes and electrically via gap junctions, ensuring coordinated, strong, and synchronized heart contractions.
  • Difference between arteries and veins
    Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins carry blood toward the heart.
  • Names and functions of the 4 heart chambers
    Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood; right ventricle pumps it to lungs; left atrium receives oxygenated blood; left ventricle pumps it to the body.
  • Names and functions of the 4 heart valves
    Tricuspid, pulmonary, bicuspid (mitral), and aortic valves ensure one-way blood flow and prevent backflow in the heart.
  • Structural and functional differences between atria and ventricles
    Atria are smaller, thin-walled receiving chambers; ventricles are larger, thick-walled pumping chambers, with the left ventricle being the thickest.
  • Parts and functions of atrioventricular (AV) valves
    AV valves have leaflets (cusps), chordae tendineae, and papillary muscles; they allow blood flow from atria to ventricles and prevent backflow during ventricular contraction.
  • Names and functions of the great vessels of the heart
    Aorta (oxygenated blood to body), superior/inferior vena cava (deoxygenated blood from body), pulmonary arteries (to lungs), pulmonary veins (from lungs).
  • Location of the apex of the heart
    The apex is the pointed tip of the heart, located in the left thoracic cavity at the 5th intercostal space, medial to the midclavicular line.
  • What is the coronary sulcus?
    A groove encircling the heart that separates atria from ventricles and contains coronary arteries and veins supplying the heart muscle.
  • What is the interventricular sulcus?
    Grooves on the heart's surface (anterior and posterior) marking the boundary between right and left ventricles and housing blood vessels.
  • Three branches of the aortic arch
    Brachiocephalic trunk (right arm and head), left common carotid artery (left head and neck), left subclavian artery (left arm).
  • Two layers of the pericardium
    Fibrous pericardium (tough outer layer) and serous pericardium (thin inner layer with parietal and visceral layers).
  • What is the foramen ovale?
    A fetal opening in the interatrial septum allowing blood to bypass lungs; closes after birth to become the fossa ovalis.
  • What is the ductus arteriosus?
    A fetal vessel connecting pulmonary artery to aorta, bypassing lungs; closes after birth to form the ligamentum arteriosum.
  • Structural differences between right and left ventricles
    Left ventricle has a thicker, conical wall for systemic circulation; right ventricle has a thinner, crescent-shaped wall for pulmonary circulation.
  • What are coronary arteries?
    Arteries branching from the aorta that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle; main branches are right and left coronary arteries.
  • Trace blood flow through the heart
    Body → venae cavae → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary arteries → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → bicuspid valve → left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta → body.
  • Functions of systole and diastole
    Systole: heart muscle contracts, pumping blood out; diastole: heart muscle relaxes, chambers fill with blood.
  • Function of the pulmonary circuit
    Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs for oxygenation and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.
  • Function of the systemic circuit
    Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
  • Structural differences between arteries and veins
    Arteries have thick, muscular, elastic walls and no valves; veins have thinner walls, larger lumens, and valves to prevent backflow.
  • What are arterioles?
    Small vessels branching from arteries with smooth muscle that regulate blood flow and pressure by vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
  • What are venules?
    Small vessels collecting blood from capillaries and transporting it to larger veins for return to the heart.
  • Structure and function of capillaries
    Smallest vessels with thin endothelial walls allowing exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and tissues.
  • Why are there valves in veins?
    Valves prevent backflow of blood, ensuring one-way flow toward the heart, especially important in limbs against gravity.
  • What are precapillary sphincters?
    Rings of smooth muscle at capillary entrances that regulate blood flow into capillary beds by contracting or relaxing.
  • How do veins return low-pressure blood to the heart?
    Using valves, muscle pump (skeletal muscle contractions), respiratory pump (pressure changes during breathing), and large lumen to facilitate flow.
  • General movement of blood through the pulmonary circuit
    Right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs (gas exchange) → pulmonary veins → left atrium.
  • General movement of blood through the systemic circuit
    Left ventricle → aorta → arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → right atrium.