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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 3 Study Guide

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  • What is the pericardium and its function?
    The pericardium is a serous membrane that surrounds the heart and prevents overfilling.
  • What is the endocardium?
    The endocardium is the inner lining of the heart chambers, distinct from the lining of blood vessels.
  • What is the role of chordae tendineae?
    Chordae tendineae anchor the AV valves and are NOT part of the cardiac conduction system.
  • How do heart valves operate?
    Heart valves open and close in response to pressure changes, not nerve signals.
  • Describe the path of blood through the heart starting from systemic return.
    Body tissues → Superior/Inferior Vena Cava → Right Atrium → Tricuspid valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary semilunar valve → Pulmonary trunk → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs.
  • What happens during atrial systole in the cardiac cycle?
    Atria contract pushing blood into ventricles; AV valves open; semilunar valves closed; initiated by SA node signal.
  • What is the conduction order in the cardiac conduction system?
    SA node → AV node → AV Bundle (Bundle of His) → Bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.
  • What does the P wave represent on an ECG?
    The P wave represents atrial depolarization, which is immediately followed by atrial systole.
  • Define cardiac output (CO) and its formula.
    Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV).
  • How does the sympathetic nervous system affect heart rate and blood pressure?
    Sympathetic activation increases heart rate, stroke volume, and causes vasoconstriction, raising blood pressure.
  • What are the key features of arteries?
    Arteries carry blood away from the heart, have the highest pressure, and the thickest wall is the tunica media.
  • What is the function of lymph nodes?
    Lymph nodes clear lymph of pathogens and debris but do NOT filter blood.
  • Where do T cells mature?
    T cells mature in the thymus, which is active during youth and shrinks with age.
  • What are the first and second lines of innate defense?
    First line: physical/chemical barriers like skin and mucous membranes. Second line: internal responses like phagocytosis, natural killer cells, inflammation, and fever.
  • What causes redness and heat during inflammation?
    Histamine causes vasodilation, increasing blood flow which leads to redness and heat.
  • What is the role of pyrogens in fever?
    Pyrogens cause the hypothalamus to raise the body's temperature set point during fever.
  • What distinguishes adaptive immunity from innate immunity?
    Adaptive immunity is antigen-specific, systemic, generates memory cells, and is not present at birth.
  • What is the function of plasma cells in humoral immunity?
    Plasma cells secrete antibodies specific to the antigen.
  • Which antibody class crosses the placenta?
    IgG is the most abundant antibody in plasma and crosses the placenta to provide fetal protection.
  • What triggers an acute allergic reaction?
    Re-exposure to an allergen causes IgE to trigger mast cells and basophils to release histamine, causing symptoms.
  • What is the difference between active and passive immunity?
    Active immunity involves the body making antibodies and memory cells; passive immunity involves receiving pre-made antibodies without memory cell production.
  • What muscles are involved in inspiration?
    The diaphragm (contracts and flattens) and external intercostal muscles (expand rib cage) are involved in inspiration.
  • What is surfactant and its function?
    Surfactant is an amphiphilic molecule produced in alveoli that reduces surface tension to prevent alveolar collapse.
  • How is most oxygen transported in the blood?
    Most oxygen is transported as oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) bound to iron in red blood cells.
  • What is the primary stimulus for increased ventilation during exercise?
    Increased partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) in the blood is the primary stimulus.
  • What is peristalsis?
    Peristalsis is waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation that propel food through the GI tract.
  • What cells secrete hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
    Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.
  • Where does most chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occur in the small intestine?
    Most chemical digestion and absorption occur in the jejunum.
  • What is the role of bile in digestion?
    Bile emulsifies fats but is NOT an enzyme; it is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
  • What is glycogenesis?
    Glycogenesis is the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage when blood glucose is high.