Skip to main content
Back

Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Key Concepts

Control buttons has been changed to "navigation" mode.
1/30
  • Negative feedback

    Negative feedback is a control mechanism that reverses a change to maintain homeostasis, such as regulating blood pressure or ventilation rate.

  • Positive feedback

    Positive feedback amplifies a response, like during blood clotting or childbirth contractions.

  • Cardiac output

    Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute, calculated as stroke volume multiplied by heart rate.

  • Stroke volume

    Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle in one contraction.

  • End diastolic volume (EDV)

    EDV is the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of filling (diastole).

  • End systolic volume (ESV)

    ESV is the volume of blood remaining in the ventricle after contraction (systole).

  • Mean arterial pressure (MAP)

    MAP is the average pressure in arteries during one cardiac cycle, influencing blood flow.

  • Effective filtration pressure

    Determined by capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial fluid osmotic pressure, capillary osmotic pressure, and interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure.

  • Agglutinogen

    Agglutinogens are antigens on red blood cells that determine blood type, such as A, B, and Rh factors.

  • Agglutinin

    Agglutinins are antibodies in plasma that react against foreign agglutinogens during blood transfusions.

  • Blood flow through the heart

    Blood flows from the vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta.

  • Types of arteries

    Elastic arteries conduct blood; muscular arteries distribute blood; arterioles regulate flow into capillaries.

  • Conduction system of the heart

    Includes the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, coordinating heart contractions.

  • Relationship between flow, pressure, and resistance

    Flow = Pressure / Resistance; blood and air flow depend on pressure gradients and resistance factors like vessel diameter.

  • Non-specific resistance vs immunity

    Non-specific resistance includes barriers and inflammation; immunity involves specific responses like antibodies and T cells.

  • Complement activation

    The complement system enhances immune responses by promoting inflammation, opsonization, and cell lysis.

  • Antibody-mediated immune response

    Also called humoral immunity, it involves B cells producing antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

  • Cell-mediated immune response

    Involves T cells attacking infected or abnormal cells directly.

  • Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in blood

    O2 is mostly bound to hemoglobin; CO2 is transported dissolved, as bicarbonate, or bound to hemoglobin.

  • Composition of blood

    Blood consists of plasma and formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets, each with specific functions.

  • Hemostasis

    Hemostasis stops bleeding via vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.

  • Intrinsic vs extrinsic coagulation pathways

    Intrinsic pathway is activated by damage inside vessels; extrinsic pathway is triggered by external trauma.

  • Hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve

    Shows hemoglobin's affinity for O2; factors like pH, CO2, temperature shift the curve affecting O2 release.

  • Basic ECG waveforms and intervals

    P wave: atrial depolarization; QRS complex: ventricular depolarization; T wave: ventricular repolarization.

  • Cardiac cycle principles

    Includes systole and diastole phases; valves open and close due to pressure changes causing heart sounds.

  • Preload and afterload

    Preload is ventricular filling pressure; afterload is resistance the heart must pump against.

  • Inotropic and chronotropic effects

    Inotropic effect changes contractility; chronotropic effect changes heart rate.

  • Cardiac output formula

    Cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate (\(CO=SV\times HR\)).

  • Factors regulating glomerular filtration rate

    Include blood pressure, filtration pressure, and autoregulation mechanisms in the kidneys.

  • Counter current multiplier mechanism

    In the nephron, it concentrates urine by creating an osmotic gradient in the medulla.