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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Key Concepts

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  • Components of plasma membrane

    The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates that contribute to its structure and function.

  • Cell junctions

    Cell junctions include tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions, which connect cells and facilitate communication or adhesion.

  • Primary active transport

    Primary active transport uses ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient via transport proteins like the Na+/K+ pump.

  • Resting membrane potential (RMP)

    RMP is the electrical potential difference across the membrane at rest, typically around -70 mV, maintained by ion gradients and membrane permeability.

  • Epithelial tissue (ET) characteristics

    ET is avascular, has tightly packed cells, exhibits polarity, and rests on a basement membrane.

  • Specific types of epithelial tissue

    Includes simple squamous, stratified squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and transitional epithelium, each with distinct functions and locations.

  • Connective tissue (CT) characteristics

    CT has abundant extracellular matrix, varying vascularity, and functions in support, protection, and binding tissues.

  • Specific types of connective tissue

    Includes loose CT, dense CT, cartilage, bone, and blood, each with unique structure and function.

  • Layers of epidermis

    The epidermis has five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), and stratum corneum.

  • Layers of dermis

    The dermis consists of the papillary layer (loose CT) and the reticular layer (dense irregular CT).

  • Functions of skin

    Skin functions include protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, and excretion.

  • Cartilage structure and types

    Cartilage is avascular with chondrocytes in lacunae; types include hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.

  • Functions of bone

    Bone provides support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and energy storage.

  • Bone structure

    Bone has gross anatomy (diaphysis, epiphysis), microscopic anatomy (osteons), and chemical composition (organic matrix and mineral salts).

  • Endochondral ossification

    Process where bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage, forming most bones of the body.

  • Intramembranous ossification

    Bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue, forming flat bones like the skull.

  • Bone remodeling and control

    Bone remodeling involves osteoclasts resorbing bone and osteoblasts forming bone, regulated by hormones and mechanical stress.

  • Types of muscle tissue

    Muscle types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle, each with distinct structure and control.

  • Skeletal muscle anatomy

    Skeletal muscle contains myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules essential for contraction.

  • Events of muscle contraction

    Includes neuromuscular junction activation, action potential generation, excitation-contraction coupling, and cross-bridge cycling.

  • Graded muscle contractions

    Muscle contraction strength varies by frequency and strength of stimuli, allowing fine control of force.

  • Factors affecting muscle contraction force

    Include number of muscle fibers recruited, fiber size, frequency of stimulation, and muscle length.

  • Neuroglia functions

    Neuroglia support neurons by maintaining homeostasis, forming myelin, and providing protection.

  • Neuron structure

    Neurons have a cell body, , and an axon for transmitting electrical signals.

  • Resting membrane potential of neurons

    Typically around -70 mV, established by ion gradients and selective permeability.

  • Action potentials

    Rapid, temporary changes in membrane potential that propagate along neurons to transmit signals.

  • Postsynaptic potentials: EPSPs vs IPSPs

    EPSPs depolarize the membrane, increasing likelihood of firing; IPSPs hyperpolarize, decreasing firing likelihood.

  • Sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous system

    Sympathetic prepares body for fight or flight, parasympathetic promotes rest and digest functions.

  • Autonomic nervous system neurotransmitters

    Includes acetylcholine and norepinephrine as primary neurotransmitters.

  • Autonomic nervous system receptors

    Includes nicotinic, muscarinic, alpha, and beta adrenergic receptors.