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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Guide

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  • Anatomical directional terms

    Superior means above, inferior means below, proximal means closer to the trunk, and distal means farther from the trunk.

  • Body planes

    Major body planes include sagittal (divides left and right), frontal (coronal) (divides front and back), and transverse (divides top and bottom).

  • Hierarchy of body organization

    Levels from smallest to largest: atoms → molecules → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism.

  • Homeostasis definition

    Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

  • Negative vs positive feedback

    Negative feedback reverses a change to maintain balance; positive feedback amplifies a change, often to complete a process.

  • Characteristics of epithelial tissue

    Epithelial tissue is avascular, has cellularity, polarity, and regenerates quickly.

  • Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

    Exocrine glands secrete products into ducts (e.g., sweat glands), endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into blood (e.g., thyroid gland).

  • Regeneration vs fibrosis

    Regeneration restores normal tissue function; fibrosis replaces damaged tissue with scar tissue.

  • Functions of the integumentary system

    Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, and excretion.

  • Epidermal layers in thick skin

    Thick skin has five layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum. Thick skin is found on palms and soles.

  • Difference between holocrine and merocrine glands

    Holocrine glands (sebaceous) release entire cells; merocrine glands (sweat) release secretions via exocytosis.

  • Compact vs spongy bone

    Compact bone is dense and forms the outer layer; spongy bone is porous and found inside bones.

  • Bone remodeling cells

    Osteoblasts build bone; osteoclasts break down bone.

  • Why bone mass decreases after menopause

    Decreased estrogen leads to increased osteoclast activity, causing rapid bone loss.

  • Functions of synovial fluid

    Lubricates joints, nourishes cartilage, and absorbs shock.

  • Classification of pubic symphysis joint

    Structurally: cartilaginous; Functionally: amphiarthrotic (slightly movable).

  • Six types of synovial joints

    Include plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket; ball-and-socket allows greatest range of motion.

  • Sliding filament theory

    Muscle contraction occurs when thin filaments slide past thick filaments, shortening the sarcomere.

  • Role of calcium in muscle contraction

    Calcium is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and triggers contraction by binding to troponin.

  • Resting membrane potential (RMP) of a neuron

    Typically around \(-70\text{mV}\), negative due to more K+ inside and Na+ outside, maintained by Na+-K+ pump.

  • Depolarization in neurons

    Caused by Na+ influx into the neuron, making the inside more positive.

  • Repolarization in neurons

    Caused by K+ efflux, restoring the negative membrane potential.

  • Saltatory conduction

    Action potentials jump between nodes of Ranvier, speeding up nerve impulse transmission.

  • Functions of medulla oblongata and pons

    Medulla controls vital functions like heart rate and breathing; pons assists in respiration and relays signals.

  • Where is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) formed?

    CSF is formed by ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of brain ventricles.

  • Dural sinuses function

    Dural sinuses drain venous blood from the brain into the internal jugular veins.

  • Spinal cord ventral horn contents

    Contains motor neuron cell bodies that send signals to muscles.

  • Dermatome clinical significance

    A dermatome is an area of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve; useful for diagnosing nerve damage.