BackAnatomy & Physiology Module 2 Study Guide
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1/28BackSkip to main contentBackMajor bones to know from the skeletal system
Femur, humerus, radius, ulna, patella, tibia, fibula, and phalanges are key bones to recognize on anterior and posterior skeleton views. Classification of bones
Bones are classified by shape; for example, the femur is a long bone. Know examples of each bone type. Functions of bones and the skeletal system
Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation, and energy storage. Periosteum
A protective connective tissue membrane on bone surface that serves as a passage for blood vessels and nerves. Sharpey’s fibers
Also called perforating fibers, they secure the periosteum to the underlying bone. Difference between yellow and red marrow
Red marrow produces blood cells and is found in spongy bone; yellow marrow stores fat and is found in the medullary cavity. Microscopic anatomy of bone
Includes osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and the matrix structure important for bone strength and remodeling. Bone growth vs bone remodeling
Growth increases bone size during development; remodeling renews bone throughout life by resorption and formation. Process of bone formation
Starts with a hyaline cartilage model that is gradually replaced by bone tissue to form mature bone. Types of bone fractures
Includes simple, compound, comminuted, greenstick, and others, each with distinct characteristics. Fracture repair steps
Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling. Axial vs appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton includes skull, vertebral column, and rib cage; appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles. Sections of the vertebral column
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccyx regions arranged from top to bottom. Difference between atlas and axis
Atlas (C1) supports the skull and allows nodding; axis (C2) has the dens for head rotation. Types of joints
Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints, each with different mobility and structure. Muscular system definition
The system composed of muscles responsible for movement, posture, and heat production. Three types of muscle tissue
Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary, heart), and smooth (involuntary, walls of organs). Microscopic anatomy of a muscle fiber
Includes sarcolemma, myofibrils, sarcomeres, and connective tissue wrappings. Sliding filament model of contraction
Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to shorten sarcomeres and contract muscle. Role of calcium in muscle contraction
Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move and expose binding sites for myosin on actin. Acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction; acetylcholinesterase breaks it down to stop contraction. Events at the neuromuscular junction
Nerve impulse triggers acetylcholine release, which binds receptors on muscle fiber, causing depolarization and contraction. Graded muscle response
Variation in muscle contraction strength due to changes in stimulation frequency or number of fibers activated. Muscle ATP generation with and without oxygen
With oxygen: aerobic respiration; without oxygen: anaerobic glycolysis producing lactic acid. Isotonic vs isometric contraction
Isotonic changes muscle length with movement; isometric generates force without changing length. Types of body movements
Flexion, extension, rotation, abduction, adduction, circumduction, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion, eversion, supination, pronation, opposition. Muscle interactions: synergy and antagonism
Synergy: muscles work together; antagonism: muscles oppose each other’s actions. Naming muscles
Based on location, shape, size, direction of fibers, number of origins, or action; e.g., biceps brachii.
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