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Anatomy & Physiology: Orientation, Tissues, and Integument

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  • Superior vs. Inferior

    Superior means above or toward the head; Inferior means below or toward the feet.

  • Anterior vs. Posterior

    Anterior refers to the front of the body; Posterior refers to the back.

  • Medial vs. Lateral

    Medial means toward the midline of the body; Lateral means away from the midline.

  • Proximal vs. Distal

    Proximal means closer to the point of attachment; Distal means farther from the point of attachment.

  • Superficial vs. Deep

    Superficial means toward or on the surface of the body; Deep means away from the surface, internal.

  • Sagittal plane

    A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left parts.

  • Frontal (coronal) plane

    A vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

  • Transverse (horizontal) plane

    A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

  • Major body cavities

    Cranial, spinal, thoracic, abdominopelvic (including abdominal and pelvic), pleural, pericardial cavities, and mediastinum.

  • Definition of tissue

    A group of similarly specialized cells performing a common function.

  • Four major tissue types

    Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues.

  • Characteristics of epithelial tissue

    Closely packed cells with minimal intercellular space, polarity, avascular, and capable of regeneration.

  • Types of epithelial tissue by shape

    Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), and columnar (tall, column-like).

  • Endocrine vs. exocrine glands

    Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to surfaces.

  • Types of connective tissue

    Bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, and blood.

  • Functions of connective tissue

    Support, protection, binding organs, storing energy, and transporting substances.

  • Three types of muscle tissue

    Skeletal (voluntary movement), smooth (involuntary, walls of organs), and cardiac (heart muscle).

  • Basic components of nervous tissue

    Neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia (supporting cells) that transmit electrical signals.

  • Layers of the skin

    Epidermis (outer layer), dermis (middle layer), and subcutaneous layer (hypodermis, deepest layer).

  • Functions of the skin

    Protection, sensation, thermoregulation, excretion, and vitamin D synthesis.

  • Role of melanin in the skin

    Melanin pigment protects against UV radiation and determines skin color.

  • Difference between eccrine and apocrine glands

    Eccrine glands produce sweat for thermoregulation; apocrine glands produce thicker secretions, often associated with hair follicles.

  • Structure and function of hair follicle

    Hair follicle anchors hair into the skin and is associated with sebaceous glands and arrector pili muscles.

  • Functions of arrector pili muscle

    Contracts to raise hair, causing 'goosebumps' and aiding in thermoregulation.

  • Vitamin D synthesis in the skin

    UV light converts precursors in the skin to vitamin D, essential for calcium absorption and bone health.

  • How skin regulates body temperature

    Through sweat production and blood vessel dilation or constriction in the dermis.