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Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine System and Blood Study Guide

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  • Three general stimuli for endocrine gland hormone release

    Humoral (changes in blood levels), Neural (nerve signals), and Hormonal (hormones stimulating other hormones).

  • Three factors affecting target cell activation by hormones

    1. Blood hormone levels, 2. Number of target cell receptors, 3. Affinity of receptors for the hormone.

  • Up-regulation vs. Down-regulation

    Up-regulation: target cells increase receptors to increase sensitivity.
    Down-regulation: target cells decrease receptors to reduce sensitivity.

  • Types of hormone interactions at target cells

    Permissiveness: one hormone enhances another's effect.
    Synergism: hormones have additive effects.
    Antagonism: hormones oppose each other.

  • Relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland

    Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system and posterior pituitary via neural connections.

  • Negative vs. Positive feedback loops in endocrine system

    Negative feedback: hormone release inhibits further release.
    Positive feedback: hormone release stimulates more release.

  • Antagonistic hormone pairs

    Calcitonin lowers blood calcium; PTH raises blood calcium.
    Insulin lowers blood glucose; Glucagon raises blood glucose.

  • Stimulus for glucagon release

    Decreased blood sugar levels stimulate glucagon release to raise glucose.

  • Adrenal gland structure and function

    Cortex: produces steroid hormones.
    Medulla: produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine).

  • Pancreas endocrine vs. exocrine functions

    Endocrine: hormone secretion (insulin, glucagon) by islets of Langerhans.
    Exocrine: digestive enzyme secretion.

  • Definition of plasma in blood

    Plasma is the liquid component of blood, containing water, proteins, nutrients, and hormones.

  • Formed elements of blood

    Includes erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and platelets.

  • Function of hemoglobin

    Hemoglobin transports oxygen; each molecule can carry up to 4 oxygen molecules.

  • Hematopoiesis and stem cells involved

    Blood cell formation from hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow.

  • Erythropoiesis control mechanism

    Controlled by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys in response to hypoxia.

  • Causes of hypoxia

    Includes hemorrhage, increased RBC destruction, iron deficiency, high altitude, and pneumonia.

  • Iron storage and transport in blood

    Stored in cells as ferritin; transported in blood bound to transferrin.

  • RBC breakdown and heme metabolism

    Heme is degraded to bilirubin in the liver, which is used to make bile; most RBC breakdown occurs in the spleen.

  • Three general groups of anemia based on cause

    Blood loss, decreased RBC production, and increased RBC destruction.

  • Causes of pernicious, aplastic, and renal anemia

    Pernicious: B12 deficiency.
    Aplastic: bone marrow failure.
    Renal: low EPO production.

  • Platelet activation trigger

    Platelets activate upon vessel injury and exposure to collagen.

  • Coagulation cascade overview

    Clotting factors form prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin to thrombin, then thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin.

  • Fibrinolysis process

    Plasminogen is converted to plasmin, which breaks down fibrin clots.

  • Factors preventing undesirable blood clotting

    Includes smooth endothelium, anticoagulant molecules, and blood flow.