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Anatomy & Physiology Practical Exam II Key Concepts

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  • Lymph node key features
    Identify structures such as the cortex, medulla, lymphatic nodules, and germinal centers on lymph node slides or models.
  • Spleen key features
    Recognize white pulp, red pulp, and trabeculae on spleen slides or models.
  • Primary organs of the lymphatic system
    Include lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
  • Function of the thymus
    Site of T cell maturation and development in the immune system.
  • Role of MALT
    Protects mucosal surfaces by producing immune responses to pathogens at mucous membranes.
  • Antigens vs. antibodies
    Antigens are foreign molecules that trigger immune responses; antibodies are proteins that specifically bind antigens.
  • Classes of antibodies
    IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD differ in structure and immune function.
  • Three tunics of blood vessels
    Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia) compose arteries and veins.
  • Differences between arteries and veins
    Arteries have thicker tunica media and smaller lumen; veins have valves and larger lumen.
  • Naming of arteries
    Usually named for the region they supply or the organ they serve, e.g., subclavian or inferior mesenteric.
  • Hepatic portal system function
    Transports nutrient-rich blood from the digestive organs to the liver for processing.
  • Fetal circulation shunts
    Include the ductus arteriosus, foramen ovale, and ductus venosus, which bypass nonfunctional fetal organs.
  • Postnatal fate of fetal shunts
    Ductus arteriosus becomes ligamentum arteriosum; foramen ovale closes forming fossa ovalis; ductus venosus becomes ligamentum venosum.
  • Layers of the trachea
    Mucosa, submucosa, cartilaginous layer (with trachealis muscle), and adventitia.
  • Histological features of tracheal mucosa
    Contains ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and goblet cells.
  • Histology of lung tissue
    Includes alveoli lined by simple squamous epithelium and rich capillary networks.
  • Muscles of quiet breathing
    Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.
  • Muscles of forced breathing
    Include sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor, and internal intercostals.
  • Respiratory volumes and capacities
    Include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity, and total lung capacity.
  • Spirometer readout interpretation
    Used to measure lung volumes and capacities to assess respiratory function.