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Biotechnology and Its Applications - General Biology

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  • What is biotechnology?

    Biotechnology is the use or alteration of organisms, cells, or biological molecules to achieve specific goals.

  • What are the two main eras of biotechnology?

    Traditional biotechnology includes selective breeding and fermentation; modern biotechnology involves gene cloning, genetic modification, recombinant DNA, and transgenic organisms.

  • Define cloning in biotechnology.

    Cloning is the process of creating identical copies of a gene or an entire organism.

  • What is recombinant DNA?

    Recombinant DNA is DNA that has been altered to contain genes or portions of genes from different organisms.

  • What are transgenic organisms?

    Transgenic organisms express DNA that has been modified or derived from other species.

  • Name three natural mechanisms of DNA recombination.

    Sexual reproduction, transformation (bacteria uptake DNA), and transduction (virus-mediated gene transfer).

  • What is the role of plasmids in bacterial transformation?

    Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that carry genes and can be taken up by bacteria during transformation.

  • What is PCR and its purpose?

    Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a method to amplify small amounts of DNA into large quantities.

  • List the three temperature phases of PCR and their functions.

    1. Denaturation (90–95°C): separates DNA strands.
    2. Annealing (50°C): primers bind target sequences.
    3. Extension (70–72°C): DNA polymerase synthesizes new strands.

  • Why is a heat-stable DNA polymerase used in PCR?

    A heat-stable DNA polymerase (from hot-spring microbes) withstands high temperatures during denaturation without denaturing itself.

  • What is CRISPR-Cas9?

    CRISPR-Cas9 is a molecular tool for precise gene editing derived from bacterial immune defenses, using the Cas9 enzyme guided by RNA.

  • What do restriction enzymes do?

    Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences, often creating sticky ends for gene insertion.

  • What is the function of DNA ligase?

    DNA ligase seals nicks in DNA, joining different DNA segments together.

  • How does gel electrophoresis separate DNA fragments?

    DNA fragments move through an agarose gel toward a positive electrode; smaller fragments move faster, separating by size.

  • What are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)?

    STRs are short DNA sequences (2–5 base pairs) repeated multiple times; their number varies among individuals.

  • Why are STRs useful in forensic science?

    STR patterns create unique DNA profiles, making it highly unlikely for two unrelated individuals to share the same profile.

  • What are the three main steps to create a genetically modified organism (GMO)?

    Isolate the desired gene, clone the gene (often using plasmids), and insert the gene into the host organism (transformation).

  • Give an example of a GMO application in agriculture.

    Crops modified for herbicide or insect resistance, such as the Bt gene producing a protein toxic to insect digestive tracts but safe for mammals.

  • What is gene therapy?

    Gene therapy treats disease by altering or replacing defective genes.

  • Describe the first successful gene therapy for SCID.

    White blood cells were removed, infected with a virus carrying a functional gene, then returned to the patient.

  • What ethical concerns arise from biotechnology?

    Risks include allergic reactions, gene flow to wild populations, embryo screening ethics, and privacy of genetic information.