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General Biology: Cellular Structure and Functions

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  • Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotic cells are simpler, smaller, and lack a nucleus; eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex, and have a nucleus and internal membranes.

  • Function of a cell's internal membrane

    Internal membranes compartmentalize cellular functions, allowing specialized environments for different processes.

  • Location of genetic material in eukaryotic cells

    Most genetic material is in the nucleus, but some DNA is also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

  • Description and function of the nuclear membrane

    The nuclear membrane is a double membrane with pores that encloses the nucleus and regulates passage of materials.

  • Difference between chromatin and chromosomes

    Chromatin is the relaxed form of DNA and proteins; chromosomes are condensed chromatin visible during cell division.

  • Why the nucleus is not found in dividing cells

    The nucleus disassembles during cell division to allow chromosome separation and then reforms afterward.

  • Function of ribosomes

    Ribosomes synthesize proteins by translating mRNA into polypeptide chains.

  • Locations of ribosomes in the cell

    Ribosomes are found free in the cytoplasm and attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

  • Why hair-producing cells have more ribosomes than fat-storing cells

    Hair cells produce more proteins, so they have more ribosomes for increased protein synthesis.

  • Organelles in the endomembrane system

    Includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membrane.

  • Function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

    The RER assembles proteins destined for secretion or membrane insertion.

  • Function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

    The SER synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals, and stores calcium ions.

  • Function of the Golgi apparatus

    The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.

  • Functions of vacuoles and vesicles

    They store and transport materials within the cell; lysosomes are specialized vesicles containing digestive enzymes.

  • Organelles supporting the endosymbiont theory

    Mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacterial origins, supporting the endosymbiont theory.

  • Function of mitochondria and reason for folded inner membrane

    Mitochondria produce ATP via cellular respiration; folds (cristae) increase surface area for energy production.

  • Types and functions of plastids

    Types include chloroplasts (photosynthesis), chromoplasts (pigment synthesis), and leucoplasts (storage).

  • Parts of chloroplasts: grana, thylakoids, and stroma

    Grana are stacks of thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll; stroma is the fluid surrounding thylakoids where the Calvin cycle occurs.

  • Function of peroxisomes

    Peroxisomes break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances by producing hydrogen peroxide.

  • Overall function of the cytoskeleton

    The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape, organizes organelles, and facilitates cell movement.

  • Three parts of the cytoskeleton

    Includes microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), and intermediate filaments.

  • How motor molecules work

    Motor proteins move along cytoskeletal fibers carrying cellular cargo using ATP energy.

  • Structure and function of centrosomes and centrioles

    Centrosomes contain centrioles that organize microtubules during cell division.

  • Advantage of storing microtubule subunits in cytoplasm

    Allows rapid assembly of microtubules without synthesizing new proteins each time.

  • Structure of cilia and flagella

    Both have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules; cilia are short and numerous, flagella are longer and fewer.

  • Effect of tobacco smoke on cilia and smoker's cough

    Smoke reduces cilia activity, impairing mucus clearance and causing coughing and lung disease.

  • What is cytoplasmic streaming and its connection to the cytoskeleton

    Cytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytoplasm facilitated by actin filaments for material distribution.

  • Description and function of the cell wall

    The cell wall is a rigid outer layer in plants that provides support and protection.

  • What is the extracellular matrix and its function

    The extracellular matrix is a network of proteins outside animal cells that supports and regulates cell behavior.

  • Locations and functions of tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions, and plasmodesmata

    Tight junctions seal cells in animal tissues; desmosomes anchor cells; gap junctions allow communication; plasmodesmata connect plant cells.