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General Biology: Energy, Cell Division, Genetics, and DNA

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Termini in questo insieme (30)

  • Definition of Energy in biological systems

    Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change, required for all cellular processes.

  • Difference between potential and kinetic energy

    Potential energy is stored energy (e.g., in chemical bonds), while kinetic energy is energy of motion (e.g., muscle contraction).

  • Role of ATP in cells

    ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cell's energy currency; breaking its bonds releases energy to drive cellular processes.

  • Law of conservation of energy in biology

    Energy can be converted but not created or destroyed; some energy is lost as heat during conversions.

  • What is entropy in biological systems?

    Entropy is the amount of disorder or randomness; living things must work to counteract entropy.

  • Energy flow in ecosystems

    Energy flows through ecosystems, mostly powered by the sun, which provides energy for photosynthesis.

  • Difference between producers and consumers

    Producers convert solar energy to chemical energy via photosynthesis; consumers obtain energy by eating producers.

  • Basic inputs and outputs of photosynthesis

    Inputs: H2O and CO2; Outputs: O2 and sugars (glucose).

  • Two stages of photosynthesis

    Light reactions capture sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH; Calvin cycle uses these to produce sugar.

  • Primary pigment in photosynthesis

    Chlorophyll is the primary pigment that absorbs sunlight in plants.

  • Cellular respiration overview

    Cellular respiration uses O2 to break down glucose, producing ATP, CO2, and H2O.

  • Link between photosynthesis and cellular respiration

    Photosynthesis stores energy in glucose; cellular respiration releases that energy for cellular work.

  • Difference between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

    Aerobic uses oxygen and produces more ATP; anaerobic occurs without oxygen, producing less ATP and lactic acid.

  • Calorie vs. kilocalorie

    A calorie is chemical energy in food; a nutritional Calorie (capital C) equals 1,000 calories (kilocalorie).

  • Stages of aerobic glucose metabolism

    Glycolysis (cytoplasm, no O2), Krebs cycle (mitochondria), and electron transport chain (mitochondria, requires O2).

  • Cell theory main points

    All living organisms consist of cells; all cells arise from preexisting cells.

  • Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction

    Sexual requires two parents and produces genetically unique offspring; asexual needs one parent and produces identical offspring.

  • Chromatin vs. chromosome

    Chromatin is DNA wound around proteins in a loose form; chromosomes are tightly coiled DNA structures visible during cell division.

  • Phases of the cell cycle

    Interphase (G1, S, G2) where cell grows and DNA replicates; mitotic phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis.

  • Major events of mitosis

    Prophase: chromosomes condense; Metaphase: chromosomes align; Anaphase: sister chromatids separate; Telophase: nuclei reform; Cytokinesis: cell divides.

  • Difference in cytokinesis between animal and plant cells

    Animal cells form a cleavage furrow; plant cells form a cell plate that becomes a new cell wall.

  • Key difference between meiosis and mitosis

    Meiosis produces haploid gametes with homologous chromosomes paired and separated; mitosis produces diploid identical cells.

  • Definition of gene and allele

    Gene is a DNA segment coding for a protein; allele is a version of a gene.

  • Dominant vs. recessive alleles

    Dominant allele is expressed when present; recessive allele is expressed only if dominant is absent.

  • DNA structure components

    DNA is a double helix of two polynucleotide strands made of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G).

  • Base pairing rules in DNA

    Adenine pairs with Thymine; Guanine pairs with Cytosine via hydrogen bonds.

  • Central dogma of molecular biology

    Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA (transcription) to protein (translation).

  • Effect of mutations on proteins

    Mutations can change amino acid sequences; some mutations are silent and do not affect protein function.

  • Gene regulation in cells

    Cells control gene expression at transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and translational levels to produce proteins as needed.

  • Difference between genetic engineering and genetic modification

    Genetic engineering is direct DNA manipulation; genetic modification includes engineering and traditional breeding.