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General Biology Exam 1 Study Guide

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  • Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles.

  • Similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

    Both have plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA as genetic material.

  • Differences between plant and animal cells

    Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles; animal cells do not.

  • Flow of genetic information in molecular biology

    DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into protein.

  • Positive vs negative regulation

    Positive regulation activates gene expression; negative regulation represses gene expression.

  • How energy flows through an ecosystem

    Energy flows from producers to consumers and is lost as heat at each trophic level.

  • Electron shells and atom stability

    Atoms are most stable when their outer electron shells are full.

  • Valence electrons

    Electrons in the outermost shell that determine an atom's chemical reactivity.

  • Reactive vs non-reactive atoms

    Atoms with incomplete valence shells are reactive; those with full shells are inert.

  • Atomic number and mass number

    Atomic number = number of protons; mass number = protons + neutrons.

  • Determining subatomic particles from atomic data

    Protons = atomic number; neutrons = mass number - atomic number; electrons = protons ± charge.

  • Chemical equilibrium

    State where forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, so concentrations remain constant.

  • Types of chemical bonds

    Covalent (polar and nonpolar), ionic, and hydrogen bonds.

  • Acid and base in acid/base reactions

    Acids donate H+; bases accept H+.

  • Determining hydrogen ion concentration from pH

    pH = -log[H+]; lower pH means higher H+ concentration.

  • What makes a buffer solution

    A buffer resists pH changes by neutralizing added acids or bases.

  • pH scale base 10 meaning

    Each pH unit represents a tenfold change in H+ concentration.

  • Properties of water that sustain life

    Cohesion, high surface tension, density, and solvent ability.

  • Functional groups in organic chemistry

    Specific groups of atoms that confer characteristic properties to molecules.

  • Types of isomers

    Structural isomers, cis-trans isomers, and enantiomers.

  • Which macromolecules are true polymers

    Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are true polymers; lipids are not.

  • Dehydration/condensation vs hydrolysis

    Dehydration links monomers by removing water; hydrolysis breaks polymers by adding water.

  • Bonds linking monomers in polymers

    Glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, peptide bonds in proteins, phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids.

  • Polysaccharide humans cannot digest

    Cellulose is indigestible due to beta glycosidic linkages.

  • Levels of protein structure

    Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures held by peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges.

  • Diseases caused by misfolded proteins

    Examples include Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and prion diseases.

  • Hydrophobic interactions in protein folding

    Nonpolar side chains cluster away from water, stabilizing protein structure.

  • Parts of an amino acid monomer

    Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and variable R group.

  • Difference between saturated and unsaturated fats

    Saturated fats have no double bonds; unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds.

  • Differences between DNA and RNA

    DNA has deoxyribose sugar and thymine; RNA has ribose sugar and uracil.

  • Identifying DNA or RNA from nucleotide sequence

    Presence of thymine indicates DNA; uracil indicates RNA.