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General Biology Exam 2 Key Concepts

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  • Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes.

  • Three types of microscopes and their uses

    Light microscope for living cells; scanning electron microscope (SEM) for 3D surface images; transmission electron microscope (TEM) for detailed internal structures.

  • Function of mitochondria and chloroplasts

    Mitochondria produce ATP via cellular respiration; chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis. Both have double membranes and their own DNA, supporting endosymbiotic origin.

  • Components of the endomembrane system

    Includes nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, and plasma membrane; involved in protein and lipid synthesis and transport.

  • Laws of thermodynamics relevant to metabolism

    First law: energy cannot be created or destroyed; second law: entropy increases in a system. Metabolism transforms energy with some loss as heat.

  • Types of energy in biological systems

    Chemical energy stored in bonds, potential energy as stored energy, kinetic energy as energy of motion.

  • Structure and function of ATP

    ATP has adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups; it stores and transfers energy by releasing phosphate groups.

  • Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane

    Membrane is a fluid bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins that move laterally, allowing selective permeability and communication.

  • Role of the extracellular matrix (ECM)

    Provides structural support, mediates cell communication, and influences cell behavior outside the plasma membrane.

  • Passive transport types

    Diffusion: movement down concentration gradient; osmosis: water diffusion; facilitated diffusion: uses transport proteins, no energy required.

  • Osmosis and tonicity effects on cells

    Hypertonic: cell loses water; hypotonic: cell gains water; isotonic: no net water movement.

  • Active transport characteristics

    Requires energy (ATP), uses transport proteins, moves substances against concentration gradient (low to high).

  • Endocytosis and exocytosis

    Endocytosis: cell engulfs materials via vesicles; exocytosis: vesicles fuse with membrane to release contents outside the cell.

  • DNA packaging and location

    DNA is wrapped around histones forming chromatin, located mainly in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

  • Enzyme function and terminology

    Enzymes lower activation energy to speed reactions; substrate binds active site; inhibitors reduce activity.

  • Inputs and outputs of cellular respiration

    Inputs: glucose and oxygen; outputs: carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

  • Cellular respiration steps and locations

    Glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs cycle (mitochondrial matrix), electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane); oxygen required for ETC.

  • Can fats and proteins be used in cellular respiration?

    True. Fats and proteins can be broken down and enter cellular respiration pathways for energy.

  • Fermentation types and characteristics

    Alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol and CO2; lactic acid fermentation produces lactate; both occur without oxygen.

  • Definitions of heterotrophs and autotrophs

    Heterotrophs consume organic molecules; autotrophs produce their own food via photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

  • Difference between consumers and producers

    Producers make organic compounds from inorganic sources; consumers eat other organisms for energy.