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General Biology Exam 2 Study Guide: Biodiversity and Evolution

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  • Domain Differences between Bacteria and Archaea

    Bacteria have peptidoglycan cell walls and ester-linked membrane lipids; Archaea have unique ether-linked lipids and lack peptidoglycan.

  • Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative Bacteria

    Gram-positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan walls retaining crystal violet stain; Gram-negative have thin walls and an outer membrane, not retaining the stain.

  • Enrichment Cultures vs. Metagenomics

    Enrichment cultures grow specific microbes under lab conditions; metagenomics sequences DNA directly from environmental samples without culturing.

  • Koch’s Postulates

    Four criteria to prove a microbe causes a disease: association, isolation, reproduction of disease, and re-isolation.

  • Horizontal Gene Transfer Mechanisms in Prokaryotes

    Includes transformation, transduction, and conjugation enabling genetic recombination.

  • Six Metabolic Feeding Strategies

    Combinations of energy sources (light or chemical) and carbon sources (organic or inorganic), including photoautotrophy, chemoheterotrophy, etc.

  • Oxygenic vs. Anoxygenic Photosynthesis

    Oxygenic produces oxygen using water as electron donor (e.g., cyanobacteria); anoxygenic does not produce oxygen, uses other electron donors.

  • Eukaryotic Synapomorphies

    Features include nuclear envelope, membrane-bound organelles, linear chromosomes, and cytoskeleton.

  • Primary vs. Secondary Endosymbiosis

    Primary engulfment of a prokaryote by a eukaryote; secondary engulfment of a eukaryote by another eukaryote.

  • Origin of the Nuclear Envelope

    Infoldings of the plasma membrane separated transcription from translation, enabling alternative splicing.

  • Seven Eukaryotic Lineages

    Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta, Excavata, Plantae, Rhizaria, Alveolata, and Stramenopiles.

  • Shared Traits of Green Algae and Land Plants

    Chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, and starch storage.

  • Cuticle and Stomata Adaptations

    Cuticle prevents water loss; stomata regulate gas exchange via guard cells.

  • UV Protection in Plants

    Flavonoid pigments act as internal sunscreens protecting against UV damage.

  • Evolution of Water-Conducting Cells

    From simple conducting cells to lignified tracheids and vessel elements for structural support and transport.

  • Life Cycle Shift in Plants

    From gametophyte-dominated to sporophyte-dominated life cycles.

  • Heterospory vs. Homospory

    Heterospory produces microspores (male) and megaspores (female); homospory produces one spore type.

  • Pollen Grain Significance

    Sporopollenin-coated male gametophytes enabling fertilization without water.

  • Fungal Body Plans

    Single-celled yeasts and multicellular mycelia composed of hyphae.

  • Extracellular Digestion in Fungi

    Lignin peroxidase breaks down lignin; cellulases hydrolyze cellulose into glucose.

  • Mycorrhizal Fungi Types

    Ectomycorrhizal fungi form hyphal sheaths around roots; arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi penetrate root cells forming arbuscules.

  • Fungal Fertilization: Plasmogamy vs. Karyogamy

    Plasmogamy is cytoplasmic fusion; karyogamy is nuclear fusion, producing heterokaryotic or dikaryotic states.

  • Animal Synapomorphies

    Multicellularity, lack of cell walls, collagen-rich extracellular matrix, motility, ingestion, and nerve/muscle cells.

  • Diploblast vs. Triploblast

    Diploblasts have ectoderm and endoderm with radial symmetry; triploblasts add mesoderm with bilateral symmetry and CNS.

  • Protostome vs. Deuterostome Development

    Protostomes: spiral cleavage, blastopore becomes mouth; deuterostomes: radial cleavage, blastopore becomes anus.

  • Lophotrochozoa Characteristics

    Defined by lophophore feeding structure, trochophore larva, and spiral cleavage.

  • Ecdysozoa Characteristics

    Growth by molting (ecdysis) of an outer cuticle or exoskeleton.

  • Chordate Synapomorphies

    Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, and muscular post-anal tail.

  • Amniotic Egg Features

    Four extraembryonic membranes (amnion, yolk sac, allantois, chorion) enabling water independence.