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General Biology: Key Concepts and Processes

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Termini in questo insieme (29)

  • Interconnectedness of Scientific Disciplines
    Biology relies on chemistry and physics to understand life processes, as principles from these fields inform biological functions at molecular and atomic levels.
  • Major Elements in the Human Body
    Key elements include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, which make up the majority of living matter and are essential for biological molecules.
  • Properties of Water Essential for Life
    Water exhibits cohesion, adhesion, high surface tension, density variations, and solvent capabilities, all critical for biological processes and ecosystems.
  • Cohesion vs. Adhesion
    Cohesion is attraction between like molecules; adhesion is attraction between unlike molecules, both vital for water transport in plants.
  • Water Density Anomaly
    Ice is less dense than liquid water due to hydrogen bonding forming an open crystal structure, allowing ice to float and insulate aquatic life.
  • Water as a Solvent
    Water's polarity enables it to dissolve ionic and polar substances, making it an excellent solvent for hydrophilic molecules but not hydrophobic ones.
  • Chemical Reactions and Energy
    Reactions transform reactants to products with energy changes; equilibrium occurs when forward and reverse rates are equal, maintaining constant concentrations.
  • Gibbs Free Energy and Reaction Spontaneity
    A reaction is spontaneous if ΔG < 0, non-spontaneous if ΔG > 0, and at equilibrium if ΔG = 0; spontaneity depends on energy and entropy changes.
  • Carbon's Role in Biology
    Carbon's four valence electrons allow diverse covalent bonds, forming complex molecules like hydrocarbons essential for life’s molecular diversity.
  • Functional Groups in Organic Molecules
    Groups like hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate determine chemical properties and reactivity of biological molecules.
  • Isomers and Their Biological Importance
    Isomers have the same formula but different structures, affecting properties; enantiomers are mirror images with distinct biological activities.
  • Macromolecules and Polymer Formation
    Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids form polymers via condensation reactions; hydrolysis breaks them down, both essential for metabolism.
  • Carbohydrate Classification
    Monosaccharides are simple sugars; disaccharides are two monosaccharides linked; polysaccharides are long chains serving energy storage or structure.
  • Protein Structure Levels
    Proteins have primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices, beta sheets), tertiary (3D shape), and quaternary (multi-chain) structures.
  • Amino Acid Structure
    Amino acids have a central carbon, hydrogen, amino group, carboxyl group, and variable R group determining their properties.
  • Peptide Bonds
    Peptide bonds link amino acids via dehydration reactions, forming polypeptide chains with directionality from N-terminus to C-terminus.
  • DNA vs RNA Structure
    DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and thymine; RNA contains ribose sugar and uracil; both are nucleic acids made of nucleotides.
  • Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
    Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, dictating cellular function and phenotype.
  • Enzyme Function
    Enzymes are proteins that catalyze reactions by lowering activation energy, with specificity determined by their active sites.
  • Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
    Temperature, pH, and substrate concentration influence enzyme shape and function; extreme conditions can denature enzymes.
  • Types of Lipids
    Lipids include fats (energy storage), steroids (signaling molecules), and phospholipids (membrane structure), all hydrophobic.
  • Phospholipid Bilayer
    Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, forming bilayers that create selective barriers in cell membranes.
  • Membrane Proteins
    Integral and peripheral proteins facilitate transport, signaling, and structural support within the fluid-mosaic membrane model.
  • Diffusion and Osmosis
    Diffusion is passive movement of molecules down concentration gradients; osmosis is water movement across membranes toward higher solute concentration.
  • Active Transport and Sodium-Potassium Pump
    Active transport uses ATP to move ions against gradients; Na+/K+-ATPase pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in, maintaining membrane potential.
  • Cell Cycle Phases
    Eukaryotic cell cycle includes G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation), and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) for cell division.
  • Mitosis Stages
    Mitosis includes prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, ensuring equal chromosome segregation to daughter cells.
  • Cytoskeleton Components
    Actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules provide structural support, enable movement, and organize intracellular transport.
  • Cell Signaling Steps
    Cell signaling involves reception, signal transduction, and response, allowing cells to adapt to environmental changes.