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General Biology Key Concepts

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  • Scientific Method: Quantitative vs Qualitative data

    Quantitative data is numerical, while Qualitative data is descriptive observations.

  • Independent vs Dependent Variable

    Independent variable is what the researcher changes; Dependent variable is what is measured.

  • Control in an experiment

    A control is the comparison or baseline condition in an experiment.

  • Hypothesis, Theory, and Law

    Hypothesis: testable explanation or prediction.
    Theory: well-supported explanation.
    Law: describes a consistent natural pattern.

  • Binomial Nomenclature rules

    Species names use Genus species format; Genus is capitalized, species lowercase, and both italicized (e.g., Homo sapiens).

  • Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotic: no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
    Eukaryotic: has nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
    Both have DNA, ribosomes, cell membrane, cytoplasm.

  • Definition of biological fitness

    Fitness means reproductive success, not just strength or speed.

  • Atomic number and mass number

    Atomic number = number of protons.
    Mass number = protons + neutrons.
    Neutrons = mass number − atomic number.

  • Charge of subatomic particles

    Proton: +1 charge
    Neutron: 0 charge
    Electron: −1 charge

  • Covalent vs Ionic vs Hydrogen bonds

    Covalent: shares electrons.
    Ionic: transfers electrons.
    Hydrogen bond: weak attraction involving partial charges.

  • Valence electrons and electronegativity

    Valence electrons are in the outermost shell.
    Electronegativity is how strongly an atom attracts shared electrons; greater difference means more polar bond.

  • Organic molecules and hydrocarbons

    Organic molecules are generally carbon-based.
    Hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen, are nonpolar and hydrophobic.

  • Isomers types

    Structural: different atom connectivity.
    Cis-trans: different arrangement around double bonds.
    Enantiomers: nonsuperimposable mirror images.

  • Element vs Compound vs Matter

    Element: one type of atom.
    Compound: two or more different elements chemically bonded.
    Matter: has mass and takes up space.

  • Solvent vs Solute

    Solvent does the dissolving.
    Solute gets dissolved.

  • Polar vs Nonpolar molecules

    Polar: uneven charge distribution.
    Nonpolar: relatively even charge distribution.

  • Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic

    Hydrophilic: interacts well with water.
    Hydrophobic: does not interact well with water.

  • Functional groups and their properties

    Hydroxyl (−OH): polar
    Carbonyl (C=O): polar
    Carboxyl (−COOH): acidic
    Amino (−NH₂): basic
    Sulfhydryl (−SH): forms disulfide bonds
    Phosphate (−PO₄): often negative
    Methyl (−CH₃): nonpolar

  • pH and hydrogen ion concentration

    pH = −log[H⁺]
    [H⁺] = 10⁻ᵖᴴ
    More H⁺ → lower pH (acidic)
    Less H⁺ → higher pH (basic)

  • Strong vs Weak acids/bases

    Strong acids/bases completely dissociate in water.
    Weak acids/bases partially dissociate.

  • Buffers

    A buffer resists pH changes, usually containing a weak acid and its conjugate base.

  • Water properties: cohesion, adhesion, surface tension

    Cohesion: water sticks to water.
    Adhesion: water sticks to other surfaces.
    Surface tension: water surface resists breaking due to cohesion.

  • Water's high specific heat and heat of vaporization

    Water absorbs lots of heat with little temperature change (high specific heat).
    It takes much energy to vaporize water (high heat of vaporization).

  • Ice density compared to liquid water

    Ice is less dense than liquid water due to hydrogen bonding creating an open structure.

  • Four major macromolecules

    Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.

  • Carbohydrates: monomer and functions

    Monomer: monosaccharide (e.g., glucose). Functions: energy and structure (starch, glycogen, cellulose).

  • Lipids: types and structure

    Includes fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids.
    Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids.
    Saturated: no C=C bonds; unsaturated: one or more C=C bonds.
    Phospholipids form cell membranes.

  • Protein structure levels

    Primary: amino acid sequence.
    Secondary: α-helices and β-sheets.
    Tertiary: overall 3D shape.
    Quaternary: multiple polypeptide chains.

  • Nucleic acids: monomer and base pairing

    Monomer: nucleotide (sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base).
    DNA base pairs: A-T, C-G.

  • Dehydration synthesis vs Hydrolysis

    Dehydration synthesis: removes water to build molecules.
    Hydrolysis: adds water to break molecules apart.