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General Biology: Key Concepts from Cell Biology to Genetics

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Termini in questo insieme (28)

  • Energy

    Energy is the ability to do work or cause change.

  • Entropy

    Entropy measures how spread out energy is; disorder tends to increase in energy transfers.

  • Calorie

    A calorie is the energy needed to raise 1 gram of water by 1°C; a food Calorie equals 1,000 calories.

  • Enzyme

    An enzyme is a biological catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds a reaction without being consumed.

  • Metabolism

    Metabolism includes all chemical reactions in an organism.

  • Activation Energy

    Activation energy is the energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

  • ATP and its energy role

    ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a short-term energy carrier; losing its terminal phosphate releases energy to power cellular work.

  • ATP cycle

    Energy from food or sunlight rebuilds ATP from ADP + phosphate; cells use ATP, releasing phosphate and making ADP again.

  • Competitive vs Noncompetitive Enzyme Inhibition

    Competitive inhibition blocks the active site; noncompetitive inhibition binds elsewhere changing enzyme shape. Both slow reactions but differ in binding and reversibility.

  • Tonicity: Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic

    Hypertonic: more solute outside, water leaves cell.
    Hypotonic: less solute outside, water enters cell.
    Isotonic: equal solute, no net water movement.

  • Passive vs Active Transport

    Passive transport moves substances down gradients without energy; active transport requires energy to move substances against gradients.

  • Cellular Respiration overall equation

    Glucose + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + usable energy (ATP and heat).

  • Photosynthesis basic inputs and outputs

    Inputs: light, CO₂, H₂O.
    Outputs: O₂ and sugars (G3P/glucose).

  • Chloroplast structure

    Chloroplast has outer and inner membranes, stroma (fluid), thylakoids (membrane sacs), grana (stacks), and lumen (thylakoid interior).

  • Light reactions products and location

    Produce O₂, ATP, NADPH in thylakoid membranes.

  • Calvin cycle products and location

    Produces G3P (sugar precursor), ADP + phosphate, NADP⁺ in the stroma.

  • Phases of mitosis

    Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms.
    Prometaphase: nuclear envelope breaks down.
    Metaphase: chromosomes align.
    Anaphase: sister chromatids separate.
    Telophase: nuclei reform.

  • Difference between mitosis and meiosis

    Mitosis: one division, two diploid identical cells.
    Meiosis: two divisions, four haploid genetically varied cells.

  • DNA structure and base pairing

    DNA is a double helix with antiparallel strands; bases pair A–T and C–G.

  • Transcription process

    RNA polymerase binds promoter, elongates RNA 5′→3′, and terminates at stop sequence.

  • Translation process

    Ribosome reads mRNA from start codon AUG; tRNAs bring amino acids matching codons; peptide bonds form; stops at stop codon.

  • Gene regulation in prokaryotes: lac operon

    Without lactose, repressor binds operator blocking transcription; lactose inactivates repressor; low glucose activates CAP–cAMP to boost transcription.

  • Mendelian inheritance: Law of segregation

    Two alleles separate during gamete formation; each gamete gets one allele.

  • Incomplete dominance

    Heterozygotes have an intermediate phenotype distinct from either homozygote.

  • Linked vs unlinked genes

    Linked genes are close on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together.
    Unlinked genes assort independently.

  • Mutation types

    Substitution: silent, missense, nonsense.
    Insertion/deletion: can cause frameshift altering many codons.

  • Virus life cycles: lytic vs lysogenic

    Lytic: rapid virus production and host cell lysis.
    Lysogenic: viral DNA integrates into host genome, can later enter lytic cycle.

  • Stem cell types

    Embryonic stem cells: pluripotent, from early embryo.
    Adult stem cells: multipotent, from developed tissues.