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General Biology Lab Concepts and Principles

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  • Metric prefixes in the metric system

    Common prefixes include kilo (k, 103), centi (c, 10-2), milli (m, 10-3), micro (μ, 10-6), and nano (n, 10-9).

  • How to convert between metric units

    Multiply or divide by powers of ten according to the prefix difference. For example, 1 kilometer = 1000 meters; 1 milligram = 0.001 grams.

  • Instruments used to measure mass, volume, and length

    Mass: balance (grams). Volume: graduated cylinders, pipettes (liters or milliliters). Length: rulers or calipers (meters, centimeters, millimeters).

  • Formula for density

    Density = mass ÷ volume, typically in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or kilograms per liter (kg/L).

  • Example of density calculation

    A sample with mass 10 g and volume 2 cm3 has density 5 g/cm3 (10 ÷ 2 = 5).

  • Key rules for scientific graphs

    Label axes with units, include a title, and plot data points clearly and accurately.

  • Definition of a hypothesis

    A testable statement predicting the outcome of an experiment.

  • Difference between prediction and conclusion

    Prediction: specific expected result if hypothesis is correct. Conclusion: interpretation of results supporting or refuting the hypothesis.

  • Types of experimental variables

    Independent variable: manipulated factor. Dependent variable: measured response. Control group: no treatment, used for comparison.

  • How to determine molecular formula from structural formula

    Count the number of each atom type shown in the structural formula to write the molecular formula.

  • Common functional groups in biological molecules

    Hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), amino (-NH2), phosphate (-PO4), methyl (-CH3).

  • Characteristics of a saturated triglyceride

    Contains three fatty acid chains with no double bonds between carbon atoms.

  • Basic structure of an amino acid

    Contains a central carbon, an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable R group.

  • Formula for total magnification of a compound microscope

    \(\text{Total Magnification} = \text{Ocular Lens Magnification} \times \text{Objective Lens Magnification}\)

  • Typical magnifications of microscope lenses

    Ocular lens: 10x. Objective lenses: 4x, 10x, 40x.

  • Order of focusing with microscope objectives

    Start with the lowest objective (4x), then switch to higher objectives (10x, 40x) for greater detail.

  • How to measure specimen size using ocular divisions

    Calibrate ocular divisions with a stage micrometer; for example, if 10 divisions = 1 mm, then 1 division = 0.1 mm.

  • Relationship between diffusion rate and molecular mass

    Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules.

  • Definitions of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions

    Hypertonic: higher solute concentration, water moves out of cell. Hypotonic: lower solute concentration, water moves into cell. Isotonic: equal solute concentration, no net water movement.

  • Interpreting osmosis graphs showing percent weight change

    Positive percent change indicates water gain (hypotonic), negative indicates water loss (hypertonic).