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General Biology: Molecules of Cells

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  • Why is lactose intolerance considered normal in adult humans?
    Lactose intolerance is normal because most adult humans produce less lactase enzyme after infancy, reducing their ability to digest lactose.
  • Why is carbon unparalleled in forming large, diverse molecules?
    Carbon has four valence electrons allowing it to form four covalent bonds, enabling complex, diverse, and stable organic molecules.
  • Define organic compounds.
    Organic compounds are molecules containing carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, often forming the basis of life’s molecules.
  • What is a hydrocarbon?
    A hydrocarbon is an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
  • What is a carbon skeleton?
    A carbon skeleton is the chain of carbon atoms that forms the backbone of an organic molecule.
  • What is an isomer?
    Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties.
  • Name the six chemical groups important in the chemistry of life.
    Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups.
  • List the four main classes of macromolecules important to life.
    Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
  • What is the relationship between monomers and polymers?
    Polymers are large molecules made by linking monomers, which are smaller, repeating units.
  • Compare dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
    Dehydration synthesis builds polymers by removing water; hydrolysis breaks polymers by adding water.
  • Describe the structure of carbohydrates.
    Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, often in a ratio of 1:2:1, forming sugars and starches.
  • What are the functions of carbohydrates?
    Carbohydrates provide energy, store energy, and serve as structural components in cells.
  • Why has the FDA proposed including grams of added sugars on food labels?
    To help consumers monitor and reduce intake of added sugars linked to health risks.
  • Describe the structure of lipids.
    Lipids are hydrophobic molecules including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, mainly composed of hydrocarbons.
  • What health risks are associated with trans fats compared to saturated fats?
    Trans fats increase heart disease risk more than saturated fats by raising bad cholesterol and lowering good cholesterol.
  • Why are phospholipids essential for cell membranes?
    Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, forming bilayers that create cell membranes.
  • What health risks are linked to anabolic steroid use?
    Anabolic steroids can cause liver damage, heart problems, hormonal imbalances, and behavioral changes.
  • Describe the structure of proteins.
    Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, folding into specific 3D shapes.
  • How does a protein’s shape determine its function?
    A protein’s specific shape allows it to interact precisely with other molecules, determining its role.
  • What are the four levels of protein structure?
    Primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices and beta sheets), tertiary (3D folding), and quaternary (multiple polypeptides).
  • Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.
    DNA is double-stranded with deoxyribose sugar; RNA is single-stranded with ribose sugar.
  • Compare the functions of DNA and RNA.
    DNA stores genetic information; RNA helps in protein synthesis and gene regulation.
  • What is the adaptive advantage of lactose tolerance in East African populations?
    Lactose tolerance allows digestion of milk into adulthood, providing a nutritional advantage in pastoralist societies.