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General Biology: Population Genetics and Evolution

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  • What is the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle?

    The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that allele and genotype frequencies in a large population remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary forces.

  • What are the allele frequency variables in the Hardy-Weinberg model?

    Frequency of allele 1 is p, frequency of allele 2 is q, and p + q = 1.

  • What is the Hardy-Weinberg genotype frequency equation?

    The genotype frequencies are predicted by \(p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1\), where p² = homozygous dominant, 2pq = heterozygous, and q² = homozygous recessive.

  • How do you calculate allele frequencies from genotype counts?

    Allele frequency = (2 × number of homozygotes + number of heterozygotes) / (2 × total individuals).

  • What are the five assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg model?

    No natural selection, no genetic drift (large population), no gene flow, no mutation, and random mating.

  • What evolutionary mechanisms violate Hardy-Weinberg assumptions?

    Natural selection, genetic drift (small population), gene flow, mutation, and non-random mating.

  • Define fitness in evolutionary biology.

    Fitness is the relative ability of a genotype to survive and reproduce, contributing offspring to the next generation.

  • What is an adaptation?

    An adaptation is a heritable trait that increases an individual's fitness compared to others without the trait.

  • How does natural selection affect allele frequencies?

    Natural selection increases the frequency of alleles that confer higher fitness and decreases those with lower fitness.

  • What is genetic drift and its effect on populations?

    Genetic drift is random change in allele frequencies, especially in small populations, which can reduce genetic variation.

  • What is gene flow and how does it affect populations?

    Gene flow is the movement of alleles between populations, which can introduce new alleles and increase genetic variation.

  • How do mutations contribute to evolution?

    Mutations introduce new alleles into a population, providing raw material for evolution.

  • What is the relationship between allele frequency changes and evolution?

    Evolution is defined as a change in allele frequencies in a population's gene pool over time.

  • How can you identify if evolution has occurred in a population?

    Evolution has occurred if allele or genotype frequencies differ from those predicted by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

  • What is the gene pool?

    The gene pool is the total collection of alleles for all genes in a population.

  • What is the significance of the rpoB gene mutation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis?

    Mutations in the rpoB gene alter RNA polymerase, causing resistance to rifampin antibiotic.

  • How does antibiotic resistance evolve in bacteria?

    Antibiotics kill susceptible bacteria, allowing resistant mutants to survive and reproduce, increasing resistance allele frequency.

  • What are Darwin's four postulates for natural selection?

    Variation exists, traits are heritable, survival/reproduction vary, and individuals with advantageous traits reproduce more.

  • How does non-random mating affect evolution?

    Non-random mating changes genotype frequencies and can increase homozygosity, affecting evolutionary dynamics.

  • What are the three types of natural selection?

    Directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection, each affecting trait distribution differently.

  • Explain directional natural selection.

    Directional selection favors one extreme phenotype, shifting the population's trait mean in that direction.