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General Biology Test 2 Key Concepts

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  • Range of object sizes visible with a light microscope
    Light microscopes can visualize structures down to about \(200\,\text{nm}\), suitable for eukaryotic cells and many organelles.
  • Difference between SEM and TEM
    SEM detects electrons bouncing off surfaces; TEM detects electrons passing through specimen interiors.
  • Purpose of stains in light microscopy
    Stains increase contrast to make transparent or colorless cellular structures visible.
  • Cell fractionation function
    Allows study of macromolecules and organelles, which may remain biologically active.
  • Structures present in bacterial cells
    Bacteria lack membrane-bound organelles; have plasma membrane, cell wall, capsule, nucleoid with circular chromosome, and ribosomes.
  • Limit to cell growth
    Surface area to volume ratio (SA/V) limits cell size and growth.
  • Organelles shared by plant and animal cells
    Nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, plasma membrane, peroxisomes, cytoplasm/cytoskeleton, and vacuoles.
  • Organelles unique to plant cells
    Cell wall, chloroplasts, large central vacuole, and plastids.
  • Organelles unique to animal cells
    Centrosomes with centrioles and lysosomes.
  • Function of nuclear envelope and nuclear pores
    Double membrane enclosing nucleus; pores regulate molecule entry and exit.
  • Function of smooth and rough ER
    Smooth ER produces lipids and detoxifies chemicals; rough ER synthesizes and folds proteins.
  • Role of Golgi apparatus
    Modifies, sorts, packages proteins and lipids from ER, then ships them to destinations.
  • Lysosomes function
    Membrane-bound organelles that digest and recycle cellular waste.
  • Phagocytosis definition
    Cellular process engulfing and digesting large particles like bacteria or debris.
  • Function of central vacuole in plant cells
    Stores water and maintains turgor pressure to keep plant cells rigid.
  • Composition of plasma membrane
    Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.
  • Endosymbiont theory
    Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from free-living prokaryotes engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells.
  • Cytoskeleton components and monomers
    Microtubules (tubulin), microfilaments (actin), and intermediate filaments (various proteins).
  • Microtubules function
    Provide structural support, intracellular transport tracks, and chromosome separation during cell division.
  • Motor proteins kinesin and dynein
    Convert ATP energy into mechanical work to move cargo along microtubules.
  • Structural organization of cilia and flagella
    Both have a 9+2 microtubule arrangement; cilia beat back and forth, flagella move in propeller-like motion.
  • Primary vs secondary plant cell wall
    Primary is thin and flexible during growth; secondary is thick and rigid after growth.
  • Plasmodesmata function
    Channels through plant cell walls allowing communication and transport between cells.
  • Types of animal cell junctions
    Tight junctions (seal), anchoring junctions (support), and gap junctions (communication).
  • Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
    Membrane is a fluid bilayer of lipids with proteins moving laterally, essential for function.
  • Active vs passive transport
    Active transport requires energy to move substances against gradients; passive transport does not.
  • Osmosis vs diffusion
    Diffusion moves particles from high to low concentration; osmosis is diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.
  • Membrane potential
    Voltage difference across a cell membrane due to ion distribution.
  • Sodium-potassium pump function
    Uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ into animal cells against concentration gradients.
  • Types of endocytosis
    Phagocytosis (large particles), pinocytosis (fluids), receptor-mediated (specific molecules).