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General Biology Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

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  • Difference between ionic and covalent bonds

    Ionic bonds form by transfer of electrons creating charged ions; covalent bonds form by sharing electrons between atoms.

  • What causes water's polarity?

    Unequal sharing of electrons in polar covalent O–H bonds and bent molecular shape create partial charges, making water a polar molecule.

  • Role of hydrogen bonds in water

    Hydrogen bonds form between water molecules' partial charges, producing cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, and ice's lower density.

  • Biological significance of water's high specific heat

    Water's hydrogen bonding allows it to absorb heat with little temperature change, stabilizing environments and organisms' internal temperatures.

  • Why is ice less dense than liquid water?

    Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules in a lattice structure when frozen, spacing them farther apart than in liquid, making ice less dense.

  • Elements CHNOPS and their biological roles

    C: carbon skeletons; H and O: water and organics; N: amino groups and bases; P: phosphate groups in nucleotides and phospholipids; S: amino acids and disulfide bonds.

  • Functional groups that affect water interaction

    Hydroxyl (–OH) and phosphate (–PO₄) groups strongly affect polarity and charge, increasing molecule's interaction with water.

  • Dehydration synthesis vs hydrolysis

    Dehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing H₂O; hydrolysis breaks polymers by adding H₂O, breaking covalent bonds.

  • Monomer and polymer of carbohydrates

    Monomers: monosaccharides; polymers: polysaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds formed via dehydration synthesis.

  • Difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

    Saturated fatty acids have no C=C bonds and straight chains; unsaturated have ≥1 C=C causing kinks, affecting membrane fluidity.

  • Phospholipid structure and property

    Phospholipids have a polar phosphate head and two nonpolar fatty acid tails, making them amphipathic and key to membrane structure.

  • Nucleotide components

    A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

  • DNA vs RNA sugar and bases

    DNA has deoxyribose and bases A, T, C, G; RNA has ribose and bases A, U, C, G.

  • Directionality of nucleic acid strands

    Nucleic acid strands have 5′ and 3′ ends; nucleotides are added at the 3′ end during polymerization.

  • Levels of protein structure

    Primary: amino acid sequence; Secondary: α-helices and β-sheets; Tertiary: 3D folding; Quaternary: multiple polypeptide subunits.

  • Types of bonds stabilizing protein structure

    Hydrogen bonds, ionic attractions, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bonds stabilize protein folding.

  • How enzymes speed up reactions

    Enzymes lower activation energy, increasing reaction rate without being consumed.

  • Effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity

    Extreme temperature or pH can denature enzymes, altering shape and active site, reducing activity.

  • Difference between phosphodiester and hydrogen bonds in DNA

    Phosphodiester bonds link sugar-phosphate backbone covalently; hydrogen bonds connect complementary bases and break during strand separation.

  • Why molecular structure affects biological function

    Polymer organization (e.g., branched vs linear) changes properties and function despite similar monomers, as seen in glycogen vs cellulose.