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General Biology: Water, Macromolecules, and Biomolecules

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  • Is water polar or nonpolar? Explain.

    Water is polar because of the uneven distribution of electrons between oxygen and hydrogen atoms, creating partial positive and negative charges.

  • What type of bonds are responsible for the unique properties of water?

    Hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause its unique properties like cohesion and high specific heat.

  • Major properties of water

    Cohesion: water molecules stick together.
    Adhesion: water sticks to other surfaces.
    Less dense as a solid: ice floats.
    High specific heat: resists temperature change.
    Versatile solvent: dissolves many substances.

  • Difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances

    Hydrophobic substances repel water; hydrophilic substances attract and dissolve in water.

  • Contrast acids and bases

    Acids increase H+ concentration; bases decrease H+ concentration by releasing OH- or accepting H+.

  • How to calculate pH from [H+]

    pH = \(-\log[H^+]\). The pH scale ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 neutral.

  • Purpose of a buffer

    Buffers resist changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H+ ions to maintain stable conditions.

  • Four main classes of biological molecules

    Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

  • Define R group, functional group, monomer, oligomer, polymer

    R group: variable side chain in amino acids.
    Functional group: specific group of atoms that give molecules properties.
    Monomer: single building block.
    Oligomer: few monomers linked.
    Polymer: many monomers linked.

  • Compare dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

    Dehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing water.
    Hydrolysis breaks polymers by adding water.

  • Monosaccharides: definition and examples

    Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates. Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.

  • Polysaccharides: definition and examples

    Long chains of monosaccharides. Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.

  • Functions of starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin

    Starch: energy storage in plants.
    Glycogen: energy storage in animals.
    Cellulose: structural support in plant cell walls.
    Chitin: structural support in fungi and arthropods.

  • Define triglyceride, fatty acid, glycerol

    Triglyceride: lipid made of 3 fatty acids + glycerol.
    Fatty acid: long hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl group.
    Glycerol: 3-carbon alcohol backbone.

  • Compare saturated and unsaturated fats

    Saturated fats: max # of H atoms, no double bonds, solid at room temp (e.g., butter). Unsaturated fats: one or more double bonds, liquid at room temp (e.g., olive oil).

  • Importance of phospholipids

    Phospholipids form the cell membrane bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.

  • What are steroids? Examples.

    Steroids are lipids with a four-ring structure. Examples: cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen.

  • Four parts of an amino acid

    Amino group (-NH2), carboxyl group (-COOH), hydrogen atom, and R group (side chain).

  • What are peptide bonds?

    Covalent bonds that link amino acids together in proteins.

  • Protein structures: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

    Primary: amino acid sequence.
    Secondary: alpha helices and beta sheets.
    Tertiary: 3D folding.
    Quaternary: multiple polypeptide chains.

  • Functions of proteins

    Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, storage, transport, movement, hormones, antibodies, and receptors.

  • What happens when you denature a protein?

    Denaturation disrupts protein structure, causing loss of function without breaking peptide bonds.

  • Three parts of a nucleotide

    Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

  • Difference between ribose and deoxyribose sugar

    Ribose has a hydroxyl group (-OH) on the 2' carbon; deoxyribose lacks this oxygen (has H instead).

  • Compare DNA and RNA

    DNA: double-stranded, deoxyribose sugar, stores genetic info.
    RNA: single-stranded, ribose sugar, involved in protein synthesis.

  • What is the central dogma of biology?

    Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.