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Nutrition Exam #2 Study Guide: Lipids, Proteins, Alcohol, and Energy Metabolism

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  • What are lipids?
    Lipids are a group of energy-dense compounds including triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, and fatty acids.
  • Why are lipids energy-dense?
    Lipids provide 9 kcal/g, making them more energy-dense than carbohydrates or proteins.
  • Types of fatty acids
    Saturated (no double bonds), monounsaturated (one double bond), and polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds).
  • What are the two essential fatty acids?
    Linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3).
  • Structure of triglycerides
    One glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids; main form of fat stored in the body.
  • Functions of triglycerides
    Energy storage, insulation, and protection.
  • Role of phospholipids
    Phospholipids form cell membranes and help regulate what enters and exits cells.
  • Functions of cholesterol
    Component of cell membranes, precursor for steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.
  • Basic sequence of fat digestion and transport
    Bile → emulsification → pancreatic lipase → fatty acids/monoglycerides → micelles → enterocytes → chylomicrons → lymph → blood.
  • Roles of lipoproteins
    Chylomicrons transport dietary fat; VLDL, LDL, and HDL transport lipids in the blood with different health effects.
  • Four levels of protein structure
    Primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helix/beta sheet), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).
  • Difference between essential and nonessential amino acids
    Essential amino acids must be obtained from the diet; nonessential can be synthesized by the body.
  • Complete vs. incomplete proteins
    Complete proteins contain all essential amino acids; incomplete proteins lack one or more essential amino acids.
  • Where does protein digestion occur?
    Stomach (hydrochloric acid and pepsin) and small intestine (pancreatic and intestinal enzymes).
  • Uses of absorbed amino acids
    Build body proteins, make enzymes/hormones, produce other compounds, and provide energy if needed.
  • Role of albumin in fluid balance
    Albumin helps maintain fluid balance by creating oncotic pressure in blood plasma.
  • What is nitrogen balance?
    The balance between nitrogen intake and loss, indicating protein status in the body.
  • Calories provided by alcohol
    Alcohol provides 7 kcal/g but is not an essential nutrient.
  • How is alcohol made?
    Fermentation by yeast converts sugars into ethanol and CO₂; distillation concentrates alcohol.
  • Standard drink equivalents
    12 oz beer, 5 oz wine, and 1.5 oz distilled spirits each contain roughly the same alcohol amount.
  • Basic pathway of alcohol metabolism
    Ethanol → acetaldehyde → acetate → acetyl-CoA, primarily metabolized in the liver.
  • Short-term effects of alcohol
    Impaired judgment, reduced coordination, memory impairment, CNS depression, and risk of alcohol poisoning.
  • Chronic effects of excessive alcohol intake
    Liver disease, pancreatitis, nutrient deficiencies, cardiovascular effects, increased cancer risk, hormonal changes.
  • Connection between alcohol and thiamine deficiency
    Excessive alcohol use can cause thiamine deficiency leading to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
  • Definition of metabolism
    All chemical reactions in the body, including catabolic (breakdown) and anabolic (building) processes.
  • What is ATP?
    Adenosine triphosphate, the cell's primary energy currency, which releases energy when converted to ADP.
  • Four major stages of energy metabolism
    Glycolysis (cytoplasm), acetyl-CoA formation (mitochondria), TCA cycle (mitochondria), electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane).
  • Difference between glycolysis and TCA cycle
    Glycolysis breaks glucose into pyruvate without oxygen; TCA cycle produces NADH and FADH₂ for aerobic ATP production.
  • How macronutrients enter energy metabolism
    Carbohydrates → glucose → glycolysis; fats → fatty acids → beta-oxidation → acetyl-CoA; proteins → amino acids → various entry points.
  • Fed vs. fasting metabolic states
    Fed state: insulin predominates, anabolic, stores energy; fasting state: glucagon predominates, catabolic, mobilizes energy.
  • Metabolic changes during prolonged fasting
    Glycogen depletion, increased lipolysis, ketone body production, brain adapts to use ketones for energy.