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Fundamentals of Genetics

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  • What is epigenesis?

    Epigenesis is the theory that an organism develops from a fertilized egg through a series of developmental events, where structures such as body organs form later and are not initially present in the early embryo.

  • State the four key points of the Cell Theory.
    • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
    • Cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.
    • Cells contain DNA passed from one generation to the next.
    • Cell structure is closely tied to its function.
  • How did Louis Pasteur disprove spontaneous generation?

    Pasteur used swan-neck flasks to show that sterilized broth remained free of microorganisms unless exposed to contaminated air, disproving spontaneous generation.

  • Compare mitosis and meiosis.
    • Mitosis: occurs in somatic cells, produces diploid cells, no crossing over.
    • Meiosis: produces haploid cells, crossing over occurs, homologous chromosomes separate in Anaphase I.
  • Define allele, genotype, and phenotype.
    • Allele: different forms of a gene.
    • Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism.
    • Phenotype: observable traits of an organism.
  • Describe the structure of DNA.

    DNA is a double helix composed of two strands of nucleotides with sugar-phosphate backbones and complementary base pairs: adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine.

  • Explain the Central Dogma of molecular biology.

    The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information: DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.

  • Why are model organisms used to study human diseases?

    Model organisms are easy to grow, have short life cycles, produce many offspring, and allow straightforward genetic analysis to understand human diseases.

  • What is the CRISPR-Cas9 system?

    A gene-editing tool that allows precise, efficient, and versatile modification of DNA sequences in organisms.

  • What was William Harvey's contribution to genetics?

    He proposed the theory of epigenesis, stating organisms develop from a fertilized egg through developmental events.

  • What is the theory of preformation?

    The idea that a miniature, fully formed organism (homunculus) exists in sperm or egg and simply grows larger during development.

  • What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

    Genes are located on chromosomes, which are transmitted through gametes, maintaining genetic continuity across generations.

  • What is independent assortment?

    The random distribution of homologous chromosome pairs during meiosis, leading to genetic variation.

  • How does RNA differ from DNA?
    • RNA is usually single-stranded.
    • RNA contains uracil instead of thymine.
    • RNA sugar is ribose, DNA sugar is deoxyribose.
  • What is the significance of Avery, McLeod, and McCarty's experiment?

    They demonstrated that DNA is the molecule responsible for heredity, not protein.

  • What is the genetic code?

    The set of rules by which nucleotide sequences in DNA and RNA are translated into amino acid sequences in proteins.

  • How does a mutation in DNA cause sickle cell anemia?

    A single base substitution in the beta-globin gene changes an amino acid, altering hemoglobin structure and causing sickle-shaped red blood cells.

  • What is recombinant DNA technology?

    The ability to transfer genes across species by combining DNA from different sources.

  • Name some historical and modern model organisms used in genetics.
    • Historical: Pea plants (Mendel's studies).
    • Modern: Viruses (T phages), bacteria (E. coli), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
  • What are the main stages of cell division in mitosis and meiosis?

    Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis.