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Anatomy & Physiology: Bone and Skeletal Tissue

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  • What are the three types of cartilage in the human skeleton?
    Hyaline cartilage (most abundant, provides support and flexibility), Elastic cartilage (contains elastic fibers, found in external ear and epiglottis), and Fibrocartilage (thick collagen fibers, great tensile strength, found in menisci and vertebral discs).
  • What is appositional growth in cartilage?
    Cartilage-forming cells secrete new matrix against the external face of existing cartilage, expanding cartilage from the outside.
  • What is interstitial growth in cartilage?
    Chondrocytes within lacunae divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within.
  • List the seven important functions of bones.
    Support, protection, movement, mineral and growth factor storage, blood cell formation, triglyceride (fat) storage, and hormone production.
  • How are bones classified by shape?
    Long bones (longer than wide), short bones (cube-shaped, including sesamoid bones), flat bones (thin, flat, slightly curved), and irregular bones (complicated shapes).
  • What are the two main types of bone tissue?
    Compact bone (dense outer layer, smooth and solid) and spongy bone (honeycomb of trabeculae with marrow-filled spaces).
  • What is the periosteum and its layers?
    A white, double-layered membrane covering bone surfaces except joints; outer fibrous layer secures to bone matrix, inner osteogenic layer contains stem cells for bone growth.
  • What is the endosteum?
    A delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surfaces, containing osteogenic cells that can differentiate into bone cells.
  • Where is red marrow found and what is its function?
    Within trabecular cavities of spongy bone and diploë of flat bones; site of hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).
  • What are the major parts of a long bone?
    Diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate), medullary cavity (marrow-filled), and membranes (periosteum and endosteum).
  • Name three types of bone markings and their significance.
    Projections (muscle/ligament attachment), surfaces (joint formation), depressions/openings (blood vessels and nerves passage).
  • What are osteogenic cells?
    Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells, essential for bone growth and repair.
  • What is the role of osteoblasts?
    Bone-forming cells that secrete osteoid, the unmineralized bone matrix composed mainly of collagen.
  • What do osteocytes do?
    Mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix and act as stress sensors to regulate remodeling.
  • What is the function of osteoclasts?
    Bone-resorbing cells that break down bone matrix, aiding in bone remodeling and calcium release.
  • Describe the structure of an osteon (Haversian system).
    The structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves.
  • What are the organic and inorganic components of bone?
    Organic: cells and osteoid (collagen and ground substance) providing tensile strength. Inorganic: hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystals) providing hardness and resistance to compression.
  • What is endochondral ossification?
    Bone formation by replacing hyaline cartilage, forming most of the skeleton including long bones.
  • What is intramembranous ossification?
    Bone develops directly from fibrous membranes, forming flat bones like clavicles and cranial bones.
  • How do long bones grow in length?
    By interstitial growth at the epiphyseal plate, where cartilage grows and is replaced by bone.
  • What are the five zones of the epiphyseal plate?
    Resting zone, proliferation zone, hypertrophic zone, calcification zone, and ossification zone.
  • What hormones regulate bone growth?
    Growth hormone (stimulates epiphyseal plate), thyroid hormone (modulates growth hormone), and sex hormones (testosterone and estrogens promote growth spurts and plate closure).
  • How is calcium homeostasis maintained by bones?
    Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts; calcitonin lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts.
  • What is Wolff's law?
    Bones grow or remodel in response to mechanical stress to become stronger where needed.
  • What are the stages of bone fracture repair?
    Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling.
  • Name three major bone diseases related to remodeling imbalance.
    Osteomalacia (poor mineralization), rickets (childhood osteomalacia), osteoporosis (bone resorption exceeds deposit), and Paget's disease (excessive, disorganized bone remodeling).