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Anatomy & Physiology: Bones and Skeletal Tissues

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  • Major functions of cartilage and bone
    • Cartilage provides flexible support and resilience.
    • Bone provides support, movement, protection, mineral storage, blood cell formation, and energy metabolism.
  • Three types of cartilage and their primary strengths
    • Hyaline: flexible support and resilience.
    • Elastic: withstands repeated bending.
    • Fibrocartilage: resists strong compression and tension.
  • Difference between appositional and interstitial cartilage growth
    • Appositional: new cartilage added at surface by chondroblasts in perichondrium.
    • Interstitial: cartilage expands from within by chondrocyte division.
  • Organic vs. inorganic components of bone matrix
    • Organic (35%): cells, fibers, ground substance; provides flexibility and tensile strength.
    • Inorganic (65%): mineral salts; provides hardness and compression resistance.
  • Four types of bone cells and their roles
    • Osteoprogenitor: stem cells that become osteoblasts.
    • Osteoblasts: build bone matrix.
    • Osteocytes: maintain bone matrix.
    • Osteoclasts: resorb bone by releasing acid and enzymes.
  • Classification of bones by shape
    • Long: longer than wide (e.g., humerus).
    • Short: cube-shaped (e.g., talus).
    • Flat: thin and often curved (e.g., sternum).
    • Irregular: complex shape (e.g., vertebra).
  • Difference between compact and spongy bone
    • Compact bone: dense outer layer organized into osteons.
    • Spongy bone: internal network of trabeculae containing marrow.
  • Major regions of a typical long bone
    • Diaphysis: shaft.
    • Epiphyses: ends.
    • Medullary cavity: hollow center with yellow marrow.
    • Periosteum: outer membrane.
    • Endosteum: internal membrane.
  • Bone markings for muscle or ligament attachment
    • Tuberosity: large rounded projection.
    • Crest: narrow ridge.
    • Trochanter: very large blunt process.
    • Tubercle: small rounded projection.
    • Epicondyle: raised area above condyle.
  • Bone markings that form joints
    • Head: bony expansion on a narrow neck.
    • Facet: smooth flat articular surface.
    • Condyle: rounded articular projection.
  • Bone markings that are depressions or openings
    • Foramen: round or oval opening.
    • Groove: furrow.
    • Fissure: narrow slitlike opening.
    • Notch: indentation at edge.
    • Fossa: shallow depression.
    • Meatus: canal-like passageway.
    • Sinus: air-filled cavity.
  • Structure and function of an osteon
    • Osteon: cylindrical unit of compact bone.
    • Lamellae: concentric matrix layers resisting twisting.
    • Central canal: contains blood vessels and nerves.
  • Difference between lacunae and canaliculi
    • Lacunae: small cavities housing osteocytes.
    • Canaliculi: tiny channels connecting lacunae for communication.
  • Intramembranous vs. endochondral ossification
    • Intramembranous: bone forms directly in mesenchyme (flat bones).
    • Endochondral: bone replaces hyaline cartilage model (most bones).
  • Zones of the epiphyseal plate in order
    Resting, proliferation, hypertrophic, calcification, ossification.
  • How long bones grow in width
    By appositional growth: osteoblasts add bone externally; osteoclasts remove bone internally to enlarge medullary cavity.
  • Hormones involved in skeletal growth
    • Growth hormone: stimulates epiphyseal plates.
    • Thyroid hormone: maintains proportions.
    • Estrogen and testosterone: promote growth and induce epiphyseal plate closure.
  • Bone remodeling process and cells involved
    • Deposition by osteoblasts produces new bone matrix.
    • Resorption by osteoclasts dissolves bone matrix.
  • Four stages of fracture repair
    Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, remodeling.
  • Common fracture patterns and their features
    • Comminuted: bone breaks into 3+ fragments.
    • Compression: bone crushed.
    • Spiral: ragged from twisting.
    • Epiphyseal: separation at growth plate.
    • Depressed: bone pressed inward.
    • Greenstick: incomplete break in children.
  • Difference between osteoporosis and osteomalacia
    • Osteoporosis: low bone mass due to excess resorption.
    • Osteomalacia: inadequate mineralization of bone.
  • Relationship between trabeculae and spongy bone
    Trabeculae are the small bony beams forming the internal network of spongy bone.
  • What does the central canal of an osteon contain?
    Blood vessels and nerve fibers.
  • What happens to the epiphyseal plate at the end of adolescence?
    Chondroblasts divide less; cartilage is replaced by bone; plate thins and becomes the epiphyseal line.
  • What is the periosteum and how does it differ from the endosteum?
    Periosteum covers the outer bone surface; endosteum lines internal bone surfaces and medullary cavity.
  • Why might a fracture crossing the growth plate affect future bone length?
    Damage may disrupt cartilage proliferation and bone replacement, impairing longitudinal growth.
  • What identifies compact bone histologically?
    Concentric lamellae arranged around a central canal forming osteons.