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Anatomy & Physiology: Cells, Tissues, and Membrane Transport

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  • Four concepts of the cell theory
    • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms.
    • Organism activity depends on collective cell activities.
    • Cell structure dictates function (complementarity).
    • Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
  • Four elements making up bulk of living matter
    • Carbon
    • Hydrogen
    • Oxygen
    • Nitrogen
    Cells are about 60% water; protein is the major building material.
  • Three major regions of a generalized cell
    • Plasma membrane
    • Cytoplasm
    • Nucleus
  • Structure and function of the plasma membrane
    A semipermeable membrane made of a phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and proteins; controls entry and exit of substances.
  • Phospholipid arrangement in plasma membrane
    Hydrophilic polar heads face outward and inward; hydrophobic nonpolar tails form the membrane interior, making it impermeable to most water-soluble molecules.
  • Functions of membrane proteins
    Act as enzymes, transport proteins, channels, receptors, and communication molecules.
  • Three types of cell junctions
    • Tight junctions: prevent leakage between cells.
    • Desmosomes: anchor cells together.
    • Gap junctions: allow communication via channels.
  • Nucleus structure and components
    Contains nuclear envelope with pores, nucleolus (ribosome assembly), and chromatin (DNA + histones).
  • Role of chromatin and nucleoli
    Chromatin stores DNA; nucleoli assemble ribosomes for protein synthesis.
  • Functions of mitochondria
    Powerhouses of the cell; use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP.
  • Ribosomes and their locations
    Sites of protein synthesis; found free in cytoplasm or attached to rough ER.
  • Differences between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
    Rough ER has ribosomes and transports proteins; smooth ER functions in lipid metabolism and detoxification.
  • Golgi apparatus functions
    Modifies, packages, and ships proteins; produces secretory vesicles, membrane components, and lysosomes.
  • Lysosomes and peroxisomes roles
    Lysosomes digest worn-out cell parts and bacteria; peroxisomes detoxify harmful substances and break down free radicals.
  • Cytoskeleton functions
    Provides cell shape, supports organelles, and enables intracellular transport.
  • Types of diffusion (passive transport)
    • Simple diffusion: movement down concentration gradient.
    • Facilitated diffusion: uses protein carriers for large or charged molecules.
    • Osmosis: diffusion of water across membrane.
  • Differences between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions
    • Isotonic: equal solute concentration; no net water movement.
    • Hypertonic: higher solute outside; water leaves cell.
    • Hypotonic: lower solute outside; water enters cell.
  • Active transport characteristics
    Requires ATP; moves substances against concentration gradient using solute pumps.
  • Vesicular transport types
    • Endocytosis: cell takes in substances (phagocytosis and pinocytosis).
    • Exocytosis: cell expels substances.
  • Phases of mitosis
    Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase; followed by cytokinesis (cytoplasm division).
  • Role of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis
    DNA is the master blueprint; mRNA carries code; tRNA brings amino acids; proteins are synthesized.
  • Four major tissue types
    • Epithelial: covers and lines surfaces.
    • Connective: supports and protects.
    • Muscle: contracts for movement.
    • Nervous: conducts impulses.
  • Characteristics of epithelial tissue
    Covers body surfaces, avascular, regenerates easily, has apical and basement membranes.
  • Simple squamous epithelium function and location
    Single flat layer; functions in filtration and diffusion; found in lungs and capillaries.
  • Types of connective tissue from rigid to soft
    Bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, blood.
  • Functions of adipose tissue
    Insulates body, protects organs, stores fuel.
  • Characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue
    Voluntary, striated, multinucleate, cylindrical cells.
  • Characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue
    Involuntary, striated, one nucleus, branching cells with intercalated discs.
  • Characteristics of smooth muscle tissue
    Involuntary, no striations, spindle-shaped cells with one nucleus.
  • Functions of nervous tissue
    Receives and conducts electrochemical impulses; composed of neurons and neuroglia.