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Anatomy & Physiology: Endocrine, Blood, and Cardiovascular Systems

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  • Function of the endocrine system

    The endocrine system regulates body functions by secreting hormones into the bloodstream to target cells, coordinating long-term processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

  • Difference between endocrine and nervous systems

    The endocrine system uses hormones for slow, long-lasting effects via blood, while the nervous system uses electrical impulses for fast, short-term responses via neurons.

  • What defines an endocrine structure and a hormone

    An endocrine structure secretes hormones directly into the blood. A hormone is a chemical messenger that affects specific target cells with receptors.

  • Why must a target cell have hormone receptors?

    Target cells must have receptors to recognize and bind specific hormones, enabling the hormone to trigger a cellular response.

  • General effects of hormone binding on target cells

    Hormone binding can alter gene expression, enzyme activity, membrane permeability, or cellular metabolism to produce a physiological effect.

  • Two ways hormones circulate in the blood

    Hormones circulate either free (unbound) or bound to transport proteins, which affect their half-life and availability.

  • Three chemical classes of hormones

    Hormones are classified as steroids, biogenic amines, and peptides/proteins, each with different solubility and mechanisms.

  • How hormone chemical structure affects target cell interaction

    Lipid-soluble hormones cross membranes to bind intracellular receptors; water-soluble hormones bind membrane receptors and use second messengers.

  • Mechanism of lipid-soluble hormone action

    Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse into cells, bind intracellular receptors, and regulate gene transcription to alter protein synthesis.

  • Mechanism of protein/peptide hormone action

    Protein hormones bind membrane receptors, activating second messengers like cAMP or Ca2+ to trigger cellular responses.

  • Types of stimuli causing hormone secretion

    Humoral: changes in blood chemistry; Hormonal: other hormones stimulate secretion; Neural: nervous system signals trigger release.

  • Permissive, synergistic, and antagonistic hormone effects

    Permissive: one hormone enhances another's effect; Synergistic: hormones amplify combined effect; Antagonistic: hormones oppose each other.

  • Connection between pituitary gland and hypothalamus

    The pituitary is connected by the infundibulum. The anterior lobe is glandular and produces hormones; the posterior lobe stores and releases hypothalamic hormones.

  • How hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary

    Hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones into the hypophyseal portal system, regulating anterior pituitary hormone secretion.

  • Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary

    Five cell types secrete hormones: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL, each targeting different tissues.

  • Direct and indirect effects of human growth hormone (hGH)

    Direct: stimulates metabolism; Indirect: promotes growth via IGF production. Regulated by GHRH and somatostatin.

  • Effects of hGH hyposecretion and hypersecretion

    Hyposecretion causes dwarfism; hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults.

  • Function of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

    TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4. Its release is regulated by TRH from the hypothalamus.

  • Target tissues and actions of gonadotropins (FSH and LH)

    FSH and LH target the gonads, regulating gamete production and sex hormone secretion.

  • Action of prolactin (PRL) and synergistic hormones

    PRL stimulates milk production. Oxytocin and estrogen work synergistically with PRL.

  • Target and action of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

    ACTH targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating cortisol secretion.

  • Neurosecretory cells and hormones of hypothalamus and posterior pituitary

    Cell bodies in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei produce oxytocin and ADH, respectively, released by the posterior pituitary.

  • Target organs and actions of oxytocin

    Oxytocin targets the uterus (stimulates contractions) and mammary glands (milk ejection).

  • Target organ and effect of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

    ADH targets the kidneys, promoting water reabsorption to maintain homeostasis. Its secretion is regulated by blood osmolarity.

  • Structure and hormone secretion of the thyroid gland

    The thyroid has follicles storing thyroglobulin. Follicular cells secrete T3 and T4, parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin.

  • Role of iodine in thyroid hormone synthesis

    Iodine is essential for synthesizing thyroglobulin and thyroid hormones, stored in the follicle lumen.

  • Actions of T3 and T4 hormones

    T3 and T4 increase metabolic rate, affect growth and development, especially in children’s nervous system development.

  • Regulation and disorders of T3 and T4 secretion

    Secretion is regulated by TSH. Hyposecretion causes cretinism or myxedema; hypersecretion causes Graves' disease.