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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 2 Study Flashcards

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  • What are the two primary layers of the integument?

    The epidermis and the dermis.

  • What type of tissue makes up the epidermis and where is it found?

    The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelial tissue and is the outermost layer of the skin.

  • Name the layers of the epidermis in order from outermost to innermost.

    From outer to inner: Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale.

  • What type of tissue is the papillary layer of the dermis and what structures are found there?

    The papillary layer is made of areolar connective tissue. It contains capillaries, sensory neurons, and forms fingerprints.

  • What type of tissue is the reticular layer of the dermis and what structures are found there?

    The reticular layer is made of dense irregular connective tissue. It contains blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and pressure receptors.

  • What is a hair follicle and where is it found?

    A hair follicle is a sheath of epidermal cells that surrounds the root of a hair, found in the dermis layer of the skin.

  • What protein makes up most of a hair and where else is it found?

    Keratin makes up most of hair and is also found in nails and the outer layer of skin.

  • What is the arrector pili and where is it located?

    The arrector pili is a small muscle attached to hair follicles that causes hair to stand up (goosebumps), located in the dermis.

  • Where does nail growth start and what protein composes nails?

    Nail growth starts at the nail matrix and nails are composed mostly of keratin.

  • What distinguishes first, second, and third degree burns?

    First degree affects only the epidermis; second degree affects epidermis and part of dermis; third degree destroys epidermis, dermis, and may affect underlying tissues.

  • Where is spongy bone found compared to compact bone?

    Spongy bone is found inside bones, especially at the ends of long bones; compact bone forms the dense outer layer.

  • What are the types of bone marrow and their functions?

    Red marrow produces blood cells and is found in spongy bone; yellow marrow stores fat and is found in the medullary cavity.

  • What are the functions of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes?

    Osteoblasts build bone, osteoclasts break down bone, and osteocytes maintain bone tissue.

  • What is the bulk of bone tissue made up of?

    Bone tissue is mostly made of collagen fibers and hydroxyapatite crystals (calcium phosphate).

  • Classify bones as short, long, flat, or irregular with examples.

    Long: femur; Short: carpals; Flat: sternum; Irregular: vertebrae.

  • Compare intramembranous and endochondral bone formation.

    Intramembranous forms bone directly from mesenchyme; endochondral forms bone by replacing cartilage.

  • Where does bone lengthening occur?

    Bone lengthening occurs at the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) during development.

  • Describe the roles of osteoclasts and osteoblasts in bone remodeling.

    Osteoclasts resorb old bone; osteoblasts form new bone to maintain bone strength and calcium balance.

  • What are the major steps of bone repair?

    Hematoma formation, fibrocartilage callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling.

  • What roles does calcium play in the body and which hormones regulate it?

    Calcium is vital for muscle contraction, nerve function, and blood clotting. Regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.

  • Classify bones as part of the axial or appendicular skeleton.

    Axial: skull, vertebrae, ribs; Appendicular: limbs, pelvic and pectoral girdles.

  • Distinguish between kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis.

    Kyphosis: excessive thoracic curvature; lordosis: excessive lumbar curvature; scoliosis: lateral spinal curvature.

  • What are the major components of synovial joints?

    Articular cartilage, synovial membrane, joint cavity with synovial fluid, ligaments, and joint capsule.

  • Define origin and insertion of a muscle.

    Origin is the fixed attachment point; insertion is the movable attachment point of a muscle.

  • What are the three types of muscle tissue and their general characteristics?

    Skeletal: voluntary, striated; Cardiac: involuntary, striated, intercalated discs; Smooth: involuntary, non-striated.

  • What is a tendon and how does it differ from a ligament?

    A tendon connects muscle to bone; a ligament connects bone to bone.

  • What are actin and myosin and how are they arranged in muscle?

    Actin and myosin are contractile proteins arranged in sarcomeres in skeletal muscle; smooth muscle has less organized filaments.

  • What occurs at the neuromuscular junction and which neurotransmitter is involved?

    Motor neuron releases acetylcholine to stimulate muscle contraction.

  • What are the four major energy sources for muscle contraction and when are they used?

    ATP from creatine phosphate (immediate), anaerobic glycolysis (short-term), aerobic respiration (long-term), and stored ATP.

  • How do anaerobic and aerobic respiration differ in muscles?

    Anaerobic produces ATP without oxygen and creates lactic acid; aerobic requires oxygen and produces more ATP.

  • Define agonist, antagonist, and synergist in muscle actions.

    Agonist: prime mover; antagonist: opposes movement; synergist: assists the agonist.