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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 2 Study Guide

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  • Bone functions
    Support, Protection, Movement, Mineral storage, Blood cell formation, Fat storage, and Endocrine role (osteocalcin release).
  • Types of bone cells and their roles
    Osteogenic cells: stem cells that become osteoblasts. Osteoblasts: build bone and secrete osteoid. Osteocytes: mature cells maintaining matrix and sensing stress. Osteoclasts: break down bone.
  • Compact vs spongy bone
    Compact bone is dense, organized into osteons with central canals, forming the outer shell. Spongy bone is a honeycomb of trabeculae, found in epiphyses and inside flat bones, holding red marrow.
  • Organic vs inorganic bone matrix
    Organic matrix (collagen and ground substance) provides flexibility and tensile strength. Inorganic matrix (hydroxyapatite crystals) provides hardness and compression strength.
  • Osteon structure
    Osteon is the structural unit of compact bone, a cylinder with concentric lamellae around a central (Haversian) canal containing blood vessels and nerves.
  • Bone remodeling cycle
    Cycle includes activation, resorption by osteoclasts, reversal, and formation by osteoblasts. It maintains calcium balance, repairs damage, and adapts bone strength to stress.
  • Hormones regulating bone
    PTH raises blood calcium by increasing osteoclast activity. Calcitonin lowers calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts. Calcitriol increases intestinal calcium absorption. Growth and thyroid hormones promote growth.
  • Endochondral ossification steps
    0: Cartilage model forms. 1: Bone collar forms. 2: Cartilage calcifies and chondrocytes die. 3: Periosteal bud invades, primary ossification center forms. 4: Secondary ossification centers form. 5: Cartilage remains as articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate.
  • Intramembranous ossification steps
    1: Ossification center forms. 2: Osteoid secreted and calcifies. 3: Woven bone and periosteum form. 4: Lamellar bone replaces woven bone with red marrow inside.
  • Epiphyseal plate zones
    1: Resting cartilage anchors plate. 2: Proliferation zone where chondrocytes divide. 3: Hypertrophy zone where chondrocytes enlarge. 4: Calcification zone where matrix calcifies and cells die. 5: Ossification zone where bone replaces cartilage.
  • Types of bone fractures
    Closed (skin intact) vs open (bone breaks skin). Complete vs incomplete (greenstick). Other types: transverse, oblique, spiral, comminuted, impacted, compression, depressed, avulsion, stress, pathological.
  • Stages of fracture repair
    1: Hematoma formation. 2: Fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus forms. 3: Bony (hard) callus forms. 4: Bone remodeling restores shape and strength.
  • Bone growth in length and width
    Length grows by interstitial growth at epiphyseal plates. Width grows by appositional growth with osteoblasts adding bone outside and osteoclasts enlarging medullary cavity inside.
  • Bone classification by shape
    Long (levers), short (stability), flat (protection and muscle attachment), irregular (special shapes), sesamoid (inside tendons), sutural (extra skull bones).
  • Axial vs appendicular skeleton
    Axial skeleton (80 bones) includes skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum. Appendicular skeleton (126 bones) includes limbs and girdles.
  • Synovial joint features
    Joint cavity with synovial fluid, articular cartilage, articular capsule with fibrous layer and synovial membrane, reinforcing ligaments, and rich nerve and blood supply.
  • Factors affecting joint stability
    1: Shape and fit of articular surfaces. 2: Number and strength of ligaments. 3: Muscle tone and tendons crossing the joint.
  • Types of synovial joints and movement axes
    Plane (nonaxial, sliding), hinge (uniaxial, flexion/extension), pivot (uniaxial, rotation), condylar (biaxial), saddle (biaxial), ball-and-socket (multiaxial).
  • Common joint movements
    Flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, inversion, eversion.
  • Arthritis types and effects
    Osteoarthritis: wear and tear, cartilage breakdown. Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune attack on synovial membrane. Gout: uric acid crystal buildup causing pain.
  • Why is the shoulder prone to dislocation?
    Shallow glenoid cavity, loose capsule, weak ligaments, and reliance on rotator cuff muscles make it mobile but unstable.
  • How do ligaments and tendons support joints?
    Ligaments connect bone to bone and limit motion. Tendons connect muscle to bone and stabilize joints dynamically through muscle tone.
  • Role of bursae and menisci
    Bursae cushion and reduce friction where tissues rub over bone. Menisci absorb shock and improve fit between bones.
  • Wolff's law
    Bone remodels and grows stronger in response to mechanical stress placed on it.
  • Why is calcium regulation important for bone health?
    Calcium is vital for muscle contraction, nerve signaling, and blood clotting. Bone stores 99% of body calcium and releases it to maintain blood levels.
  • Differences between compact and spongy bone
    Compact bone is dense, forms outer shell, resists bending. Spongy bone is porous, found in epiphyses, supports marrow, and remodels faster.
  • How does bone repair differ with age?
    Children heal fractures faster due to active growth and thick periosteum. Older adults have slower healing and decreased bone mass.
  • How do joint injuries affect mobility?
    Injuries cause pain, swelling, instability, and reduced range of motion, limiting daily activities and increasing arthritis risk.