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Anatomy & Physiology II Exam 2 Study Guide (Chapters 20-22)

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  • Main function of the lymphatic system
    To return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream and provide immune defense through lymphocytes and lymphoid organs.
  • Major lymph node areas in the body
    Cervical, axillary, and inguinal lymph nodes.
  • General anatomy of a lymph node
    Afferent vessels enter at the convex surface; efferent vessels exit at the concave surface (hilum).
  • Names and locations of tonsils
    Palatine tonsils (oral cavity), pharyngeal tonsils/adenoids (nasopharynx), lingual tonsils (base of tongue), tubal tonsils (around auditory tube).
  • Location of Peyer’s patches
    Isolated lymphatic nodules found in the small intestine.
  • Sign of active infection in a lymph node
    Enlarged germinal centers in lymph follicles of the cortex, indicating dividing B cells.
  • Purpose and location of the thymus
    Site where T lymphocytes develop immunocompetence; located mainly in the thorax, largest in children, atrophies after adolescence.
  • Fate of fetal thymus lymphocytes reactive to self-antigens
    They are destroyed during selection to prevent autoimmune disease.
  • Thoracic duct origin and drainage
    Begins at the cisterna chyli; drains lymph from left side of body and lower body into the junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins.
  • Right lymphatic duct drainage
    Drains lymph from right upper torso into the junction of the right internal jugular and subclavian veins.
  • Function and location of the spleen
    Site of RBC destruction and immune response; located in the left hypochondrium lateral to the stomach.
  • Innate immune system first line of defense examples
    Intact skin (acid mantle, keratin), mucous membranes, nasal hairs, cilia, gastric juice, tears, saliva, urine.
  • Innate immune system second line of defense examples
    Phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, interferons, and fever.
  • Difference between humoral and cellular immunity
    Humoral immunity involves B cells and antibody secretion; cellular immunity involves T cells targeting infected or abnormal cells.
  • Role of cytotoxic T lymphocytes
    Attack virus-infected, cancer, or mismatched cells using MHC proteins; stimulated by helper T cells.
  • Types of immunity: passive natural
    Antibodies received naturally, e.g., fetus receiving antibodies from mother.
  • Types of immunity: active artificial
    Immune system produces antibodies after vaccination with weakened or dead pathogens.
  • Primary vs secondary immune response
    Primary response has a 3-6 day lag on first antigen exposure; secondary response is faster and stronger due to immunological memory.
  • Mechanisms of antibody-antigen reaction
    Neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, complement fixation, and cell lysis.
  • Functions of antibody classes IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, IgE
    IgM: first antibody in primary response; IgA: in secretions; IgD: B cell receptor; IgG: most abundant in plasma; IgE: triggers allergic reactions.
  • Effect of AIDS on immune system
    Destruction of helper T lymphocytes, impairing immune response.
  • Definition and examples of autoimmune diseases
    Immune system attacks self; examples include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and Type 1 diabetes.
  • Cause of hypersensitive (allergic) reactions
    IgE antibodies bind mast cells and basophils, triggering histamine release and inflammation.
  • Location of olfactory epithelium
    Roof of the nasal cavity.
  • Cartilages of the larynx: paired and unpaired
    Arytenoid cartilages are paired; epiglottis is elastic cartilage preventing food entry.
  • Largest airway with hyaline cartilage rings
    The trachea.
  • Difference between right and left primary bronchi
    Right bronchus is shorter, wider, and more vertical, making it more prone to lodging foreign objects.
  • Muscles responsible for inspiration
    External intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
  • Relationship between PCO2, pH, and blood acidity
    As PCO2 increases, pH decreases (more acidic); as PCO2 decreases, pH increases (more basic).
  • Definition and typical volume of tidal volume (TV)
    Amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing; about 500 mL.
  • Function of surfactant in lungs
    Produced by type II alveolar cells; reduces alveolar surface tension to prevent collapse.