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Anatomy & Physiology II unit 2 Study Guide

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  • Major function of the respiratory system
    To keep the blood constantly supplied with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide.
  • Process involving diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and lungs
    Pulmonary gas exchange.
  • Five important functions of the nose
    1) Provides airway for respiration, 2) Moistens and warms air, 3) Filters and cleans air, 4) Resonating chamber for speech, 5) Houses olfactory receptors.
  • Epithelium type lining most of the nasal cavity
    Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
  • Function of the paranasal sinuses
    To lighten the skull.
  • Function of the tonsils
    Form a ring of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx to protect against pathogens in food or inhaled air.
  • Common function of all respiratory zone structures
    They are the actual sites of gas exchange in the lungs.
  • Common function of all conducting zone structures
    Provide conduits for air to reach alveoli and cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air.
  • Three functions of the larynx
    1) Provides a patent airway, 2) Routes air and food into proper channels, 3) Houses vocal folds for voice production.
  • Largest cartilage of the larynx
    Thyroid cartilage.
  • How the epiglottis functions as 'guardian of the airways'
    During swallowing, it tips to cover the laryngeal inlet, preventing food from entering lower respiratory passages.
  • Type of cartilage forming the epiglottis
    Elastic cartilage.
  • Epithelium lining the trachea mucosa
    Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
  • Why are tracheal cartilage rings incomplete posteriorly?
    To allow the esophagus to expand anteriorly during swallowing.
  • Gas exchange occurs by which mechanism across the respiratory membrane?
    Simple diffusion.
  • Transition point between conducting and respiratory zones
    From terminal bronchiole to respiratory bronchiole.
  • Route of air from nostrils to alveoli
    Nostrils → Nasal cavity → Nasopharynx → Oropharynx → Laryngopharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Main bronchi → Lobar bronchi → Segmental bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveolar ducts → Alveolar sacs → Alveoli.
  • Function of pleural fluid
    Lubricates lungs to glide over thorax wall and creates surface tension to keep lungs inflated.
  • Why must intrapleural pressure be negative relative to atmospheric pressure?
    To prevent lung collapse by keeping lungs inflated.
  • Effect on lung air pressure when thoracic cavity volume increases
    Air pressure in lungs decreases.
  • Direction of air movement
    Air moves from an area of higher pressure to lower pressure.
  • What happens during inspiration to allow air flow into lungs?
    Lung volume increases, decreasing pressure below atmospheric pressure.
  • Why is inspiration active and quiet expiration passive?
    Inspiration requires muscle contraction; quiet expiration results from muscle relaxation and lung elastic recoil.
  • Accessory muscles used during forced inspiration
    Scalenes, sternomastoid, pectoralis minor, and erector spinae muscles.
  • Muscles contracting during forced expiration
    Abdominal muscles: external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus abdominis.
  • Definition of vital capacity
    Total amount of exchangeable air.
  • Definition of residual volume
    Amount of air remaining in lungs after forced expiration.
  • How is most oxygen transported in blood?
    Bound to the heme group of hemoglobin.
  • Effect of emphysema on blood pH
    H+ concentration increases and blood pH decreases (acidosis).
  • Three long-term body adjustments to high altitude
    1) Increased erythropoiesis, 2) Increased BPG concentration, 3) Increased minute respiratory volume.
  • Cause of tuberculosis
    Airborne bacteria.
  • Six major digestive system processes
    Ingestion, Propulsion, Mechanical breakdown, Digestion, Absorption, Defecation.
  • Definition of retroperitoneal organs
    Organs located posterior to the peritoneum, e.g., pancreas and duodenum.
  • Four basic layers of alimentary canal wall
    Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis externa, Serosa.
  • Layer responsible for segmentation and peristalsis
    Muscularis externa.
  • Type of epithelium lining the mouth
    Stratified squamous epithelium.
  • Role of soft palate during swallowing
    Rises to close off nasopharynx, preventing food from entering nasal cavity.
  • Four functions of saliva
    1) Cleanses mouth, 2) Dissolves food chemicals, 3) Moistens food, 4) Contains salivary amylase to digest starch.
  • Type of epithelium lining the esophagus
    Stratified squamous epithelium.
  • Modification of stomach muscularis externa
    Contains an additional oblique smooth muscle layer.
  • Function of hydrochloric acid in stomach
    Creates acidic pH (1.5–3.5) for pepsin activation and kills bacteria.
  • Role of bile
    Emulsifies fats to aid digestion.
  • Effect of cholecystokinin (CCK)
    Stimulates gallbladder contraction and release of bile and pancreatic juice.
  • Three segments of small intestine
    Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
  • Structural modification increasing nutrient absorption time in small intestine
    Circular folds.
  • Microscopic structure giving brush border appearance
    Microvilli.
  • Beneficial role of bacteria in large intestine
    Help digest remaining nutrients and produce vitamins.
  • Three categories of macronutrients
    Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
  • Two categories of micronutrients
    Vitamins and minerals.
  • Definition of metabolism
    Sum of all chemical reactions in body cells.
  • Location of citric acid cycle
    Mitochondrial matrix.
  • Location of oxidative phosphorylation
    Inner mitochondrial membrane.
  • Approximate ATP yield from one glucose molecule
    About 30 ATP.
  • Definition of glycogen
    Polymer of glucose stored in animal cells.
  • Reaction of glycogenesis
    Formation of glycogen from glucose subunits.
  • Building blocks of triglycerides
    Glycerol and fatty acids.
  • Reaction forming fats from glycerol and fatty acids
    Lipogenesis.
  • Definition of ketosis
    Excess ketone bodies in blood leading to ketoacidosis.
  • Fed state characteristics
    Anabolism exceeds catabolism; glucose is major energy fuel; nutrients absorbed from GI tract.
  • Hormone directing fed state events
    Insulin.
  • Why is liver main metabolic organ?
    Processes nearly all nutrient classes and regulates plasma cholesterol.
  • Substances detoxified by liver
    Alcohol, drugs, and other toxins.
  • Effect of energy intake exceeding output
    Body weight increases.
  • Source and effect of leptin
    Secreted by adipose cells; rising levels decrease appetite.