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Anatomy & Physiology Key Concepts

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  • Difference between anatomy and physiology

    Anatomy studies structure; physiology studies function.

  • Levels of organization in the human body

    Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organism

  • Smallest living unit in the body

    Cell

  • Type of anatomy that studies cells

    Cytology

  • Definition of homeostasis

    Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

  • Feedback mechanism maintaining homeostasis in most body systems

    Negative feedback

  • Description of the anatomical position

    Standing upright, feet flat, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

  • Anatomical plane dividing body into anterior and posterior

    Frontal (coronal) plane

  • Directional term meaning toward the midline

    Medial

  • Two major body cavities and one example each

    Posterior (cranial or spinal); Anterior (thoracic or abdominopelvic). Example: Pericardial cavity contains the heart.

  • Organ system responsible for rapid communication and control

    Nervous system

  • Structure controlling what enters and leaves the cell

    Plasma (cell) membrane

  • Structure of the plasma membrane

    Phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, proteins, cholesterol, and glycolipids.

  • Two functions of the plasma membrane

    Barrier; regulates transport; communication; structural support (any two).

  • Type of membrane transport moving substances from high to low concentration without energy

    Diffusion

  • Definition of osmosis

    Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

  • Transport moving substances from low to high concentration requiring energy

    Active transport

  • Transport process known as 'cell eating'

    Phagocytosis

  • Structure increasing plasma membrane surface area for absorption

    Microvilli

  • Organelle producing ATP

    Mitochondria

  • Organelle modifying, packaging, and shipping proteins

    Golgi apparatus

  • Organelle containing digestive enzymes and recycling cell components

    Lysosomes

  • Function of ribosomes

    Protein synthesis

  • Phase of cell cycle when DNA replication occurs

    S phase

  • Phase of interphase when cell grows and duplicates organelles

    G₁ phase

  • Four stages of mitosis in order

    Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase

  • Phase of mitosis when chromosomes line up at metaphase plate

    Metaphase

  • Phase of mitosis when sister chromatids separate

    Anaphase

  • Purpose of mitosis

    Growth, repair, and replacement of cells.

  • Why plasma membrane is selectively permeable

    Allows some substances to pass while restricting others, maintaining homeostasis.

  • Effect on red blood cell in hypertonic solution

    Cell loses water and shrinks (crenation).

  • Similarity and difference between diffusion and facilitated diffusion

    Both move substances down concentration gradient; facilitated diffusion requires carrier proteins, diffusion does not.

  • Why muscle cells have many mitochondria

    Mitochondria produce ATP needed in large amounts for muscle contraction.

  • Relationship of phospholipid bilayer structure to function

    Hydrophilic heads interact with water; hydrophobic tails create barrier to water-soluble substances.

  • Role of carrier proteins in active transport and ATP requirement

    Carrier proteins change shape to move substances against gradient using energy from ATP.

  • Difference between rough ER and smooth ER

    Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins; smooth ER lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

  • Why mitosis is important for growth but not reproduction

    Mitosis produces identical somatic cells for growth and repair; reproduction requires meiosis to produce gametes.

  • Effect if lysosomes stop functioning

    Waste and damaged organelles accumulate, leading to cell damage or death.

  • How failure in negative feedback leads to disease

    Internal conditions deviate from normal ranges, causing illness or organ dysfunction.

  • Why oxygen crosses membrane by simple diffusion but glucose does not

    Oxygen is small and nonpolar; glucose is large and polar, requiring carrier proteins.

  • How sodium–potassium pump maintains gradients and charge

    Moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in, maintaining ion gradients and membrane potential.

  • Similarity and differences between mitosis and meiosis

    Both involve cell division; mitosis produces 2 identical diploid cells; meiosis produces 4 nonidentical haploid cells with two divisions.

  • Why cells that secrete proteins have extensive rough ER and Golgi

    Rough ER synthesizes proteins; Golgi modifies and packages them for secretion.

  • Effect if nuclear pores stop functioning

    RNA and proteins cannot move between nucleus and cytoplasm, disrupting protein synthesis and regulation.

  • How mitochondria structure relates to function

    Cristae increase surface area for ATP production, enhancing energy generation efficiency.

  • Chromatin organization during interphase vs mitosis

    Interphase: DNA loosely packed as chromatin; mitosis: DNA condenses into visible chromosomes.

  • Why multicellular organisms require cell specialization and mitosis role

    Specialization allows efficiency; mitosis produces identical cells maintaining specialized functions.

  • Definition of metabolism and its importance

    Sum of all chemical reactions in the body that maintain life.

  • Difference between anabolism and catabolism

    Anabolism builds complex molecules using energy; catabolism breaks down molecules to release energy.

  • Examples of anabolic and catabolic processes

    Protein synthesis is anabolic; cellular respiration is catabolic.

  • How ATP links catabolic and anabolic reactions

    Catabolic reactions produce ATP, which provides energy for anabolic reactions.

  • Effect if anabolic reactions inhibited but catabolic normal

    Cell cannot build or repair structures, leading to dysfunction or death.

  • Why metabolism is sum of all chemical reactions, not single process

    Many interconnected reactions occur simultaneously to sustain life.

  • Role of enzymes in metabolic reactions

    Enzymes lower activation energy, allowing reactions to occur efficiently at body temperature.

  • Difference in metabolic rate between resting and active muscle cell

    Active muscle cell has higher metabolic rate due to increased ATP demand.

  • Four major classes of biological molecules in the human body

    Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

  • Primary function of carbohydrates in cells

    Provide a primary and quick source of energy.

  • Main roles of lipids in the human body

    Long-term energy storage, insulation, protection, and cell membrane components.

  • Structure and function of proteins

    Made of amino acids; function as enzymes, structural components, transporters, and signaling molecules.

  • Why nucleic acids are essential for cell function

    Store and transmit genetic information and direct protein synthesis.

  • Similarity and difference between carbohydrates and lipids

    Both provide energy; carbohydrates used quickly, lipids for long-term storage.

  • Effect of extremely low carbohydrate diet on cellular metabolism

    Cells rely more on lipids and proteins for energy, altering normal metabolism.

  • How protein structure determines function

    Specific shape allows interaction with specific molecules, determining function.

  • Relationship between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis

    DNA provides instructions; RNA carries and translates them; proteins perform functions.

  • Macromolecule most involved in enzymes, energy storage, genetic info, and membrane structure

    Enzymes: proteins; energy storage: lipids; genetic info: nucleic acids; membrane structure: lipids.

  • Purpose of cellular respiration and main organelle

    Converts glucose energy into ATP; occurs in mitochondria.

  • Sagittal plane definition and division

    Divides body into left and right portions.

  • Coronal (frontal) plane definition and division

    Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

  • Transverse plane definition and division

    Divides body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

  • Plane used in CT scan showing horizontal slice through abdomen

    Transverse plane because it divides body into upper and lower parts.

  • Most abundant mineral in bone

    Calcium

  • Percentage of body's calcium stored in bones

    Approximately 98%

  • Part of skeletal system producing blood cells

    Red bone marrow

  • Part of bone providing tensile strength

    Collagen fibers

  • Substance giving bone resistance to compression

    Hydroxyapatite

  • Bone cell maintaining bone matrix

    Osteocyte

  • Bone cell building new bone tissue

    Osteoblast

  • Bone cell breaking down bone

    Osteoclast

  • Small cavities housing osteocytes

    Lacunae

  • Tiny channels connecting lacunae

    Canaliculi

  • Basic structural unit of compact bone

    Osteon

  • Type of bone that is lightweight and made of trabeculae

    Spongy bone

  • Location of yellow bone marrow

    Medullary cavity (diaphysis)

  • Typical location of red bone marrow in adults

    Epiphyses of long bones

  • Shaft of a long bone called

    Diaphysis

  • Membrane covering outside of bones

    Periosteum

  • Layer of periosteum responsible for bone growth and repair

    Osteogenic layer

  • Membrane lining the medullary cavity

    Endosteum

  • Process of bone formation

    Ossification (osteogenesis)

  • Type of ossification forming flat skull bones

    Intramembranous ossification

  • Type of ossification forming long bones

    Endochondral ossification

  • Structure allowing bone growth in length during childhood

    Epiphyseal plate

  • What remains after bone growth stops

    Epiphyseal line

  • Vitamin necessary for calcium absorption

    Vitamin D

  • Hormone increasing blood calcium levels

    Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

  • Hormone decreasing blood calcium levels

    Calcitonin

  • Term describing decreased bone mass with aging

    Osteopenia

  • Disease causing porous and fragile bones

    Osteoporosis

  • Type of fracture common in children that bends without breaking

    Greenstick fracture

  • Bone shape category of the femur

    Long bone

  • Term describing an immovable joint

    Synarthrosis

  • Term describing a freely movable joint

    Diarthrosis

  • Type of joint the knee is

    Synovial (hinge)

  • Fluid reducing friction in synovial joints

    Synovial fluid

  • Cartilage covering ends of bones in synovial joints

    Articular cartilage

  • Structure connecting bone to bone

    Ligament

  • Structure connecting muscle to bone

    Tendon

  • Movement decreasing angle at a joint

    Flexion

  • Turning the palm upward is called

    Supination

  • Joint with greatest range of motion in the body

    Shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

  • Why bone is considered a dynamic tissue

    Bone remodels, repairs, responds to stress, and maintains mineral balance.

  • Why canaliculi are essential for osteocyte survival

    Allow nutrients and oxygen diffusion to osteocytes and waste removal.

  • Two structural differences between compact and spongy bone

    Compact bone is dense with osteons; spongy bone is porous with trabeculae.

  • How trabeculae arrangement helps bones resist stress

    Align along lines of stress to distribute force efficiently.

  • Why bone is stronger when stress applied lengthwise

    Osteons run parallel to bone axis, providing maximum strength lengthwise.

  • Effect on bone strength if collagen fibers absent but minerals remain

    Bone becomes brittle and prone to fracture without collagen's tensile strength.

  • Why damage to periosteum slows bone healing

    Periosteum contains blood vessels and osteogenic cells needed for repair.

  • Bone formed by intramembranous and endochondral ossification

    Intramembranous: skull bones; Endochondral: femur (long bones).

  • Why bone growth in length stops after epiphyseal closure

    Epiphyseal cartilage is replaced by bone, stopping length growth.

  • Why vitamin C deficiency impairs bone growth

    Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis essential for bone matrix formation.

  • Why synovial joints are highly mobile but prone to injury

    Increased mobility sacrifices stability, increasing injury risk.

  • How synovial fluid nourishes articular cartilage

    Compression and release force synovial fluid in and out of cartilage.

  • Why damage to articular cartilage increases joint pain

    Loss of cartilage increases friction and bone-to-bone contact.

  • Difference between ligament and tendon

    Ligaments connect bone to bone; tendons connect muscle to bone.

  • Why shoulder joint is less stable than hip joint

    Shoulder has shallow socket; hip has deep acetabulum.

  • Locking mechanism of the knee and its advantage

    Rotation during extension locks knee, allowing standing with minimal muscle effort.

  • Why inflammation of a bursa causes pain during movement

    Inflamed bursae increase friction and pressure during movement.

  • Type of joint and axes of movement for the wrist

    Condylar joint; biaxial movement (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction).

  • Why double-jointed individuals have higher injury risk

    Loose ligaments allow excessive movement, increasing strain and dislocation risk.

  • How aging increases risk of arthritis in synovial joints

    Wear and tear reduce cartilage thickness, increasing friction and inflammation.