뒤로Anatomy & Physiology Key Concepts
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An emergent property is a characteristic that appears when individual parts interact as a whole, producing properties the parts alone do not have. Example: The heart's ability to pump blood emerges from coordinated heart cells.
Physiology is the study of how living organisms and their parts function.
Mechanistic explains how something happens; teleological explains why or the purpose. Example: Mechanistic - blood pressure decreases because vessels dilate; Teleological - vessels dilate to reduce blood pressure.
Homeostasis is maintaining a relatively stable internal environment despite external or internal changes, usually within a normal range, not a single fixed value.
Pathophysiology is the study of how normal physiological processes are altered by disease.
Intracellular fluid (ICF): fluid inside cells.
Extracellular fluid (ECF): fluid outside cells, including interstitial fluid and plasma.
The amount of a substance changes by: Change = amount entering − amount leaving. If more enters than leaves, amount increases; if more leaves, it decreases.
Mass flow: bulk movement of substances due to pressure gradient.
Excretion: removal of substance from body.
Clearance: rate a substance is removed from fluid, usually volume per time.
Equilibrium: no net movement, forces balanced.
Steady state: variable constant despite continuous movement.
Disequilibrium: opposing forces unbalanced, driving movement.
1. Input/sensor detects change.
2. Integrator/control center compares to desired value.
3. Output/effector produces response.
Local control: response by cell/tissue without long-distance communication.
Reflex control: stimulus detected, info sent to integrating center, response coordinated via nervous/endocrine systems.
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
Conjugated proteins: proteins with nonprotein components.
Glycosylated molecules: molecules with attached carbohydrate groups.
1. Covalent bonds: atoms share electrons.
2. Ionic bonds: attraction between oppositely charged ions.
3. Hydrogen bonds: weak attractions involving hydrogen and electronegative atoms.
Polar molecules have unequal charge distribution (e.g., water).
Nonpolar molecules have even charge distribution (e.g., oxygen, many lipids).
Ion: atom/molecule with net charge.
Cation: positively charged ion.
Anion: negatively charged ion.
Ionic bonds dissociate into individual ions when placed in water.
pH measures hydrogen ion concentration.
Acids increase H⁺ concentration.
Bases decrease H⁺ or increase OH⁻ concentration.
Affinity: strength of attraction between binding site and ligand.
Specificity: ability to recognize and bind particular molecules.
An isoform is one of several different forms of a protein performing similar or related functions.
Proteolytic activation: protein activated by cutting with a protease.
Cofactors: nonprotein substances required for protein/enzyme function.
Saturation occurs when all available binding sites on a protein are occupied, so adding more ligand does not increase binding.
The membrane is a flexible phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and molecules, moving like a mosaic.
Integral proteins are embedded or span the membrane.
Peripheral proteins attach to the membrane surface without penetrating the bilayer.
Rough ER: produces and processes proteins for secretion or membranes.
Smooth ER: involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and metabolism.
Lysosomes contain enzymes to digest cellular materials.
Autophagy is the process of recycling damaged or unnecessary cell components.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of cells.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.
Potential energy is stored energy, such as in chemical bonds or concentration gradients.
Enzymes lower activation energy, speeding reactions by binding substrates, facilitating the reaction, and releasing products.
Passive transport: no direct energy required.
Active transport: requires energy.
Simple diffusion: substances cross lipid bilayer directly.
Facilitated diffusion: substances cross via membrane proteins like channels or carriers.
RMP is the voltage difference across the cell membrane, with the inside negative relative to outside, mainly due to selective ion permeability.
Depolarization: membrane potential becomes less negative.
Repolarization: returns toward resting potential.
Hyperpolarization: becomes more negative than resting potential.
Hormones are chemical signals released by endocrine cells into the bloodstream to act on distant target cells.
Lipophilic signals dissolve in lipids and often cross membranes to bind intracellular receptors.
Lipophobic signals do not cross membranes and bind membrane receptors.
First messenger: extracellular signaling molecule binding receptor.
Second messenger: intracellular molecule produced in response to receptor activation transmitting the signal.
Neural: fast, specific, electrical and chemical signals.
Endocrine: slower, widespread, chemical hormones in blood, longer duration.