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Anatomy & Physiology: Lymphatic and Immune Systems

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  • Primary functions of the lymphatic system
    Regulation of interstitial fluid volume, absorption of dietary fats via lacteals, and immune functions by filtering pathogens and housing leukocytes.
  • What is lymph?
    Fluid that exits extracellular space (interstitial fluid) and enters lymphatic vessels for transport back to the cardiovascular system.
  • Difference between lymphatic and blood capillaries
    Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended and one-way, allowing fluid and cells to enter but not exit; blood capillaries are two-way, moving blood toward and away from tissues.
  • Role of valves in lymphatic vessels
    Prevent lymph from flowing backward, aiding transport against gravity, often assisted by muscle contractions.
  • Cisterna chyli and thoracic duct function
    Cisterna chyli collects lymph from lumbar and intestinal trunks; thoracic duct drains lymph from lower body and left upper body into left subclavian vein.
  • Lymphedema cause and effect
    Caused by lymphatic vessel removal or blockage, leading to accumulation of interstitial fluid and swelling in affected body parts.
  • Composition of lymphoid tissue
    Loose connective reticular tissue containing reticular fibers, macrophages, B and T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and reticular cells.
  • Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) locations
    Found in oral and nasal cavities, gastrointestinal tract (including Peyer's patches), respiratory passages, and genitourinary tract.
  • Function of lymph nodes
    Filter pathogens from lymph, house leukocytes, and prevent spread of infection by trapping and destroying pathogens.
  • Spleen's two histological regions and functions
    Red pulp destroys old erythrocytes; white pulp filters pathogens from blood and contains leukocytes.
  • Primary function of the thymus
    Secretes hormones to generate functional T cells and ensures immunocompetence by screening T cells.
  • Three lines of defense in immunity
    First line: surface barriers; second line: innate immunity (cells and proteins); third line: adaptive immunity (specific cells and antibodies).
  • Innate vs adaptive immunity
    Innate immunity responds quickly and nonspecifically; adaptive immunity is slower, specific, and has immunological memory.
  • Surface barriers in first line of defense
    Skin with keratin and acidic sebum; mucous membranes producing mucus and acid to trap and kill pathogens.
  • Phagocytic cells of innate immunity
    Macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils that ingest and destroy pathogens and debris.
  • Role of natural killer (NK) cells
    Nonphagocytic innate immune cells that recognize and destroy cancerous and virus-infected cells.
  • Complement system activation pathways
    Classical (antibody-bound antigen), lectin (lectin binding carbohydrates), and alternative (direct pathogen recognition) pathways.
  • Main effects of activated complement proteins
    Cell lysis via membrane attack complex, enhanced inflammation, virus neutralization, opsonization, and clearance of immune complexes.
  • Cardinal signs of inflammation
    Redness, heat, swelling (edema), and pain caused by vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and sensory neuron activation.
  • Phagocyte response stages in inflammation
    Activation of local macrophages, neutrophil migration and diapedesis, monocyte recruitment and differentiation, leading to pathogen clearance.
  • Fever mechanism
    Pyrogens reset hypothalamic thermostat to higher temperature, inducing shivering and heat production; fever breaks when reset to normal.
  • Cell-mediated immunity key cells
    Helper T (TH) cells (CD4) and cytotoxic T (TC) cells (CD8) that respond to intracellular pathogens and abnormal cells.
  • Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) classes
    Class I MHC on all nucleated cells present endogenous antigens to TC cells; Class II MHC on antigen-presenting cells present exogenous antigens to TH cells.
  • T cell activation requirements
    Binding of T cell receptor to MHC-antigen complex and co-stimulation for full activation and clonal expansion.
  • Functions of helper T cells
    Secrete cytokines to activate and enhance immune responses, including activation of TC cells and B cells.
  • Functions of cytotoxic T cells
    Kill infected or abnormal cells by releasing perforin and enzymes inducing apoptosis.
  • Types of tissue grafts
    Autografts (same individual), isografts (genetically identical), allografts (same species, nonidentical), and xenografts (different species).
  • Antibody-mediated immunity phases
    B cell recognition and activation, antibody secretion, and memory B cell formation for faster secondary response.
  • Five classes of antibodies (Ig)
    IgG (most abundant, crosses placenta), IgA (secretions), IgM (first secreted), IgE (allergies and parasites), IgD (B cell receptor).
  • Antibody functions
    Agglutination, precipitation, opsonization, neutralization, complement activation, and inflammation stimulation.
  • Difference between primary and secondary immune responses
    Primary is slower with IgM dominant; secondary is faster, stronger, with IgG dominant and higher affinity antibodies.
  • Active vs passive immunity
    Active: body produces memory cells after exposure or vaccination; passive: preformed antibodies transferred, short-lived.
  • Type I hypersensitivity (allergy) mechanism
    IgE binds allergens, triggers mast cell degranulation releasing histamine causing inflammation and allergy symptoms.
  • Immunodeficiency disorders types
    Primary (genetic/developmental) and secondary (acquired by infection, trauma, cancer, or medication).
  • HIV-1 infection target and effect
    Targets CD4+ helper T cells, leading to immune system failure and AIDS.
  • Autoimmune disorder causes
    Release of sequestered antigens, molecular mimicry, or nonspecific B cell activation leading to self-reactive immune responses.