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Anatomy & Physiology Midterm 1 Study Guide

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이 집합의 용어 (29)

  • Difference between anatomy and physiology

    Anatomy studies body structure; physiology studies body function. Structure constrains or supports function by determining what a body part can do.

  • Levels of biological organization from chemical to organismal

    Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organism. Emergent properties arise as complexity increases at each level.

  • Define homeostasis and dynamic equilibrium

    Homeostasis is maintaining a stable internal environment; dynamic equilibrium means conditions fluctuate within a range. Multiple organ systems interact to maintain this balance.

  • Components of a homeostatic feedback loop

    Stimulus, sensor/receptor, control center, afferent signal, efferent signal, effector, and response.

  • Difference between negative and positive feedback

    Negative feedback reverses the original stimulus (e.g., blood pressure regulation). Positive feedback amplifies it (e.g., childbirth, blood clotting).

  • Role of protons, neutrons, and electrons in atoms

    Protons: positive charge, define element; Neutrons: neutral, add mass; Electrons: negative, involved in bonding.

  • Difference between ionic and covalent bonds

    Ionic bonds transfer valence electrons; covalent bonds share valence electrons.

  • Difference between solution, suspension, and colloid

    Solution: homogeneous mixture (solute + solvent). Suspension: particles settle out. Colloid: particles remain dispersed.

  • Anabolic vs catabolic reactions

    Anabolic: build larger molecules, require energy. Catabolic: break down molecules, release energy.

  • Polarity and water solubility

    Polar molecules are hydrophilic and dissolve in water; nonpolar are hydrophobic. Phospholipids form bilayers due to amphipathic nature.

  • Building blocks and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

    Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, energy; Lipids: fatty acids/glycerol, energy storage & membranes; Proteins: amino acids, structure & enzymes; Nucleic acids: nucleotides, genetic info.

  • Dehydration synthesis vs hydrolysis

    Dehydration synthesis builds molecules by removing water; hydrolysis breaks molecules by adding water.

  • How protein shape relates to function

    Protein shape determines function; changes (denaturation or mutation) can disrupt function.

  • How enzymes affect reaction rates

    Enzymes lower activation energy, speeding reactions. Blocking active sites or temperature changes can inhibit enzymes.

  • Differences between DNA, RNA, and ATP

    DNA stores genetic info; RNA transfers info for protein synthesis; ATP provides energy. DNA base-pairing: A-T, C-G.

  • Four primary functions of cell membranes

    Physical barrier, selective permeability, communication, and support.

  • Phospholipid structure and bilayer formation

    Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, causing self-assembly into bilayers in water.

  • Difference between integral and peripheral membrane proteins

    Integral proteins span the membrane; peripheral proteins attach to membrane surfaces.

  • Major functional roles of membrane proteins

    Transport, receptors, enzymes, cell identity, anchoring, and cell adhesion.

  • Pathway of a secreted protein through the endomembrane system

    Rough ER → transport vesicle → Golgi complex → secretory vesicle → exocytosis.

  • Differences between Rough ER and Smooth ER

    Rough ER has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

  • Three forms of endocytosis

    Phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking), receptor-mediated endocytosis (selective uptake).

  • Unique characteristics of mitochondria

    Double membrane, own DNA, produce ATP. High concentration in energy-demanding tissues.

  • Structure of the nucleus

    Nuclear envelope with pores, chromatin (DNA + proteins), nucleolus (rRNA synthesis).

  • Difference between transcription and translation

    Transcription: DNA to mRNA in nucleus; Translation: mRNA to protein in cytoplasm.

  • Phases of the cell cycle and key events in Interphase

    G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation), M (mitosis). Interphase includes G1, S, G2.

  • Key events in mitosis stages

    Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle forms; Metaphase: chromosomes align; Anaphase: chromatids separate; Telophase: nuclear envelope reforms.

  • Role of tumor suppressor genes

    Control cell division and repair DNA. Mutation can lead to uncontrolled growth (cancer).

  • Difference between benign and malignant tumors

    Benign: encapsulated, non-invasive; Malignant: invasive, metastasizes.