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Anatomy & Physiology: Special Senses

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  • Location of olfactory receptors
    Olfactory receptors are bipolar neurons located in the nasal epithelium, specifically the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium in the superior nasal cavity.
  • Requirements for substances to be smelled
    Substances must be volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble to be smelled; odorant gases must dissolve in mucus.
  • Neural pathway of olfactory impulses
    Olfactory nerve axons synapse with mitral cells in olfactory bulbs; mitral cell axons form olfactory tracts that project to the temporal lobes and limbic system.
  • Function of olfactory (Bowman’s) glands
    They produce mucus located in connective tissue deep to the nasal epithelium to trap and dissolve odorants.
  • Location of gustatory receptors
    Gustatory receptor cells are located in taste buds on the tongue and other areas.
  • Primary tastes
    The four primary tastes are sour, salty, bitter, and sweet.
  • Neural pathways for taste sensation
    Taste impulses travel via cranial nerves VII (anterior 2/3 tongue), IX (posterior 1/3 tongue), and X (epiglottis and pharynx) to the medulla, thalamus, and parietal lobe.
  • Accessory structures of the eye
    Include eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.
  • Function of the conjunctiva
    A thin mucous membrane lining the inner eyelids and anterior eyeball surface, protecting and lubricating the eye.
  • Components of the fibrous tunic of the eye
    Includes the posterior sclera, which provides shape and protection, and the anterior cornea, which is transparent and refracts light.
  • Role of the scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm)
    Drains excess aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to maintain intraocular pressure.
  • Functions of the vascular tunic
    Includes the choroid (absorbs stray light and nourishes retina), ciliary body (produces aqueous humor and controls lens shape), and iris (regulates light entry).
  • Structure and function of the iris
    Colored part of the eye with circular and radial muscles controlling pupil size to regulate light entering the eye.
  • Layers of the retina
    Consists of pigmented epithelium (absorbs stray light) and neural portion with photoreceptors (rods and cones), bipolar neurons, and ganglion neurons.
  • Differences between rods and cones
    Rods detect black-and-white vision in dim light; cones detect color and sharpness in bright light, concentrated in the fovea centralis.
  • Function of the lens
    A nonvascular, transparent structure that fine-tunes focusing of light rays for clear vision.
  • Cause and effect of glaucoma
    Blockage of aqueous humor drainage increases intraocular pressure, damaging the retina and causing blindness.
  • Accommodation in vision
    Ciliary muscle changes lens curvature to focus on near (thicker lens) or far (flatter lens) objects.
  • Process of image formation on the retina
    Light rays are refracted by cornea and lens, focused inverted and reversed on retina, then corrected by the brain for perception.
  • Photopigments in rods and cones
    Rods contain rhodopsin; cones contain three types of iodopsins for red, green, and blue color detection.
  • Pathway of visual impulses
    From photoreceptors to bipolar cells, then ganglion cells; impulses travel via optic nerve, chiasma, tract, thalamus, to occipital cortex.
  • Anatomical divisions of the ear
    External ear (auricle, canal, tympanic membrane), middle ear (tympanic cavity with ossicles), and internal ear (bony and membranous labyrinth).
  • Function of the ossicles
    Malleus, incus, and stapes transmit vibrations from tympanic membrane to the oval window of the cochlea.
  • Role of the cochlea
    Contains the organ of Corti, the receptor organ for hearing, converting sound waves into nerve impulses.
  • Function of the semicircular canals
    Contain receptors for dynamic equilibrium, detecting rotational movements of the head.
  • Static equilibrium organs
    Maculae of the utricle and saccule detect head position relative to gravity using otolithic membrane weighted by otoliths.
  • Dynamic equilibrium mechanism
    Movement of endolymph in semicircular ducts bends crista ampullaris hair cells, triggering receptor potentials for balance.
  • Auditory pathway to the brain
    Impulses from cochlear nerve pass to medulla, cross sides, then to midbrain, thalamus, and auditory cortex in temporal lobe.