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Cardiovascular System and Blood - Anatomy & Physiology

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  • Major functions of the cardiovascular system components
    Blood transports gases, nutrients, and wastes; heart pumps blood; blood vessels carry blood throughout the body.
  • General composition of blood
    Blood consists of plasma (liquid matrix) and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets).
  • Composition of blood plasma
    Plasma is mostly water with dissolved proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and waste products.
  • Major plasma proteins and their functions
    Albumins maintain osmotic pressure; globulins include antibodies; fibrinogen is essential for clotting; all produced mainly by the liver.
  • Formed elements of blood and their general functions
    Erythrocytes transport oxygen; leukocytes defend against infection; platelets aid in clotting.
  • Five types of leukocytes in order of prevalence
    Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils; each has specific immune functions.
  • Structure and function of hemoglobin
    Hemoglobin is a protein in erythrocytes that binds oxygen; breakdown produces iron, biliverdin, and bilirubin.
  • Definition and normal ranges of hematocrit
    Hematocrit is the percentage of erythrocytes in blood; normal ranges: males ~42-52%, females ~37-47%.
  • Locations of hematopoiesis
    Hematopoiesis occurs mainly in red bone marrow; hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) give rise to all blood cells.
  • Erythropoiesis and regulation
    Erythropoiesis is red blood cell formation; reticulocytes are immature RBCs; regulated by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys.
  • Basic process of leukopoiesis
    Leukopoiesis is the production of white blood cells from hematopoietic stem cells.
  • Basic process of thrombopoiesis
    Thrombopoiesis is platelet production from megakaryocytes in bone marrow.
  • Vascular phase of hemostasis
    Endothelial cells constrict vessels and release factors to reduce blood loss after injury.
  • Role of platelets in hemostasis
    Platelets adhere to injury sites, aggregate, and form a platelet plug to stop bleeding.
  • Basic steps of coagulation
    Coagulation forms fibrin clot via intrinsic, extrinsic, and common pathways activating clotting factors.
  • Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways
    Intrinsic is activated by contact with damaged vessel; extrinsic is triggered by tissue injury; both converge on common pathway.
  • Role of vitamin K in blood clotting
    Vitamin K is essential for synthesizing clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X.
  • Process of fibrinolysis
    Fibrinolysis dissolves clots using plasmin, activated from plasminogen by tissue plasminogen activator.
  • ABO blood group antigens and antibodies
    Blood types have A or B antigens; antibodies are opposite type (e.g., type A has anti-B antibodies).
  • Rh blood group and clinical significance
    Presence of Rh antigen = positive; absence = negative; anti-Rh antibodies can cause hemolytic disease in newborns.
  • Position of the heart in the thoracic cavity
    The heart lies in the mediastinum, between the lungs, behind the sternum, and above the diaphragm.
  • Layers of the pericardium
    Fibrous pericardium (outer), parietal serous pericardium, pericardial cavity with fluid, and visceral serous pericardium (epicardium).
  • Structural differences between atria and ventricles
    Atria have thinner walls and receive blood; ventricles have thicker walls and pump blood out.
  • Primary internal heart structures
    Chambers, septa, valves, papillary muscles, chordae tendineae, fibrous skeleton, and vessel openings.
  • Blood flow through the heart
    Blood flows: body → right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body; oxygen-poor to lungs, oxygen-rich to body.
  • Phases of cardiac muscle action potential
    Phases: rapid depolarization, plateau (Ca2+ influx), repolarization; ion movements involve Na+, Ca2+, and K+.
  • Electrical conduction system sequence
    SA node → AV node → AV bundle → bundle branches → Purkinje fibers; coordinates heart contractions.
  • Definition of cardiac cycle, systole, and diastole
    Cardiac cycle is one heartbeat; systole is contraction phase; diastole is relaxation phase.
  • Cardiac output (CO) formula
    CO = stroke volume (SV) × heart rate (HR); measures blood volume pumped per minute.