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General Biology: Cell Membranes, Cell Division, and Genetics

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  • Structure of biological membranes
    Biological membranes consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates, providing a flexible and selective barrier.
  • Fluid mosaic model
    The fluid mosaic model describes membranes as a dynamic structure with proteins floating in or on the fluid lipid bilayer.
  • Molecules that freely pass through membranes
    Small nonpolar molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide freely pass through the membrane by diffusion.
  • Molecules that cannot freely pass through membranes
    Large polar molecules and ions cannot freely cross the membrane and require transport proteins.
  • Passive transport
    Movement of molecules across membranes without energy input, down their concentration gradient.
  • Active transport
    Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient using energy, often from ATP.
  • Diffusion
    The passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration.
  • Osmosis
    The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from low to high solute concentration.
  • Effect of osmosis on animal cells
    Animal cells may shrink in hypertonic solutions or swell and burst in hypotonic solutions.
  • Effect of osmosis on plant cells
    Plant cells become turgid in hypotonic solutions and plasmolyze in hypertonic solutions.
  • Direct active transport
    Active transport where ATP directly powers the transport of molecules across membranes.
  • Cotransport
    Active transport where the movement of one molecule drives the movement of another molecule against its gradient.
  • Exocytosis
    Process where cells expel materials by vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane.
  • Endocytosis
    Process where cells engulf materials by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane.
  • Main steps in cell signaling
    Reception, signal transduction, and cellular response.
  • Purpose of cell division
    To enable growth, repair, and reproduction of cells.
  • Binary fission
    A form of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes where the cell divides into two identical cells.
  • DNA packaging in eukaryotic nucleus
    DNA is wrapped around histone proteins forming nucleosomes, further coiled into chromatin and chromosomes.
  • Difference between chromosomes and sister chromatids
    Chromosomes are single DNA molecules; sister chromatids are identical copies joined at the centromere after DNA replication.
  • Stages of Interphase
    G1 (cell growth), S phase (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for mitosis).
  • Events in Prophase
    Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down.
  • Events in Metaphase
    Chromosomes align at the cell equator.
  • Events in Anaphase
    Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
  • Events in Telophase
    Nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes decondense.
  • Difference between mitosis and cytokinesis
    Mitosis is nuclear division; cytokinesis is cytoplasm division.
  • Cytokinesis in animal vs plant cells
    Animal cells form a cleavage furrow; plant cells form a cell plate.
  • End products of mitosis
    Two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.
  • Difference between haploid and diploid
    Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes; diploid cells have two sets.
  • Asexual vs sexual reproduction
    Asexual produces genetically identical offspring; sexual involves genetic recombination.
  • Stages of meiosis
    Meiosis I (reduction division) and Meiosis II (equational division), each with Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
  • Biological importance of crossing over
    It increases genetic variation by exchanging DNA between homologous chromosomes.
  • End products of meiosis
    Four genetically diverse haploid gametes.
  • Mendel's contributions to genetics
    Established laws of inheritance using pea plants, including segregation and independent assortment.
  • Non-Mendelian inheritance patterns
    Include incomplete dominance, codominance, pleiotropy, epistasis, polygenic inheritance, and environmental influence.
  • Purpose of a test cross
    To determine the genotype of an organism showing a dominant phenotype.
  • Reading a pedigree
    Analyzing family history to track inheritance of traits or disorders.
  • Examples of recessively-inherited disorders
    Disorders expressed only when two recessive alleles are present, e.g., cystic fibrosis.
  • Examples of dominantly-inherited disorders
    Disorders expressed when at least one dominant allele is present, e.g., Huntington's disease.