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General Biology: Cell Structure, Function, and Division

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  • Cell theory

    Cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

  • Endomembrane system organelles

    Includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, and plasma membrane; involved in protein and lipid synthesis, modification, and transport.

  • Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles.

  • Differences between plant and animal cells

    Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuole; animal cells lack these but have centrioles and lysosomes.

  • Why are cells small?

    Cells are small to maximize surface area-to-volume ratio, allowing efficient nutrient uptake and waste removal.

  • Gap junctions

    Gap junctions are channels that allow direct communication and molecule exchange between adjacent animal cells.

  • Tight junctions

    Tight junctions create a seal between adjacent cells to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid.

  • Desmosomes

    Desmosomes are anchoring junctions that provide mechanical strength by linking cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.

  • Major cytoskeletal components and functions

    Microfilaments (cell shape, movement), intermediate filaments (structural support), microtubules (organelle movement, cell division).

  • Extracellular matrix (ECM)

    The ECM is a network of proteins and carbohydrates outside cells that provides structural support and mediates cell signaling.

  • Cell membrane components and fluidity control

    Composed of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol; fluidity controlled by lipid composition and temperature.

  • Fluid mosaic model

    Describes the cell membrane as a fluid lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that move laterally.

  • Cell membrane permeability

    Permeable to small nonpolar molecules; impermeable to ions and large polar molecules without transport proteins.

  • Simple diffusion

    Movement of molecules from high to low concentration without energy or assistance.

  • Facilitated diffusion

    Passive transport using membrane proteins to move molecules down their concentration gradient.

  • Active transport

    Energy-requiring process moving molecules against their concentration gradient using transport proteins.

  • Osmosis and tonicity

    Osmosis is water movement across a membrane; hypotonic causes cell swelling, hypertonic causes shrinking, isotonic causes no net change.

  • Endocytosis and exocytosis

    Endocytosis brings materials into the cell via vesicles; exocytosis expels materials from the cell.

  • Three major stages of cell signaling

    Reception (signal detected), transduction (signal relayed), response (cellular action).

  • Purpose of mitosis

    Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.

  • Cells that undergo mitosis

    Most somatic (body) cells undergo mitosis; gametes do not.

  • Phases of mitosis

    Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase; each involves chromosome condensation, alignment, separation, and nuclear reformation.

  • Chromosome number tracking in mitosis

    Starts with diploid (2n) cell; after mitosis, two diploid daughter cells are produced.

  • Differences in mitosis between plant and animal cells

    Animal cells form a cleavage furrow; plant cells form a cell plate during cytokinesis.

  • Cell cycle control and checkpoints

    Checkpoints regulate progression; major controllers include cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).

  • Consequences of loss of cell cycle control

    Uncontrolled cell division can lead to cancer.

  • Cancer genes

    Oncogenes promote cell division; tumor suppressor genes inhibit it; mutations can cause cancer.