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General Biology Exam II Review

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  • Define kinetic and potential energy with examples.

    Kinetic energy is energy of motion (e.g., moving molecules). Potential energy is stored energy (e.g., chemical bonds in glucose).

  • What is the 1st law of thermodynamics and its relevance to living organisms?

    The 1st law states energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Living organisms convert energy from one form to another but total energy remains constant.

  • What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics and its relevance to living organisms?

    The 2nd law states entropy increases in isolated systems. Organisms maintain order by using energy, increasing entropy in their surroundings.

  • What is an enzyme and how does it function in cells?

    An enzyme is a protein catalyst that speeds up biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed.

  • What factors affect enzyme function?

    Factors include temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and presence of inhibitors or activators.

  • Compare competitive and non-competitive enzyme inhibition.

    Competitive inhibitors bind the active site, blocking substrate. Non-competitive inhibitors bind elsewhere, changing enzyme shape and function.

  • Name coenzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration and their role.

    Coenzymes like NADP+ (photosynthesis) and NAD+, FAD (respiration) transfer electrons and energy between molecules.

  • Write the overall equation for photosynthesis.

    \(6CO_2 + 6H_2O + light \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2\)

  • Write the overall equation for cellular respiration.

    \(C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + energy (ATP)\)

  • What is the purpose of the light reactions in photosynthesis?

    Light reactions convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH) and produce oxygen by splitting water.

  • Name key components of the light reactions in the thylakoid membrane.

    Photosystem II (PS II), Electron Transport Chain (ETC), Photosystem I (PS I), ATP synthase, and the H+ gradient.

  • What is the purpose of the Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions)?

    The Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into glucose and other carbohydrates.

  • Which wavelengths of light are absorbed by chlorophyll pigments?

    Chlorophyll absorbs mainly blue (around 450 nm) and red (around 680 nm) wavelengths.

  • Define phosphorylation and give an example in cells.

    Phosphorylation is adding a phosphate group to a molecule, e.g., ATP synthesis during cellular respiration.

  • Define oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and give an example.

    Redox reactions involve electron transfer; oxidation is loss, reduction is gain. Example: NAD+ reduced to NADH in respiration.

  • What are the main sources of atmospheric CO2?

    Sources include cellular respiration, decomposition, volcanic activity, and burning fossil fuels.

  • What is the function of the electron transport chain (ETC) in photosynthesis and respiration?

    ETC transfers electrons to create a proton gradient used to produce ATP via ATP synthase.

  • What are the objectives of mitosis and meiosis?

    Mitosis produces two identical diploid cells for growth/repair; meiosis produces four genetically diverse haploid gametes.

  • Name the phases of the cell cycle and their main events.

    G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation), M (mitosis), and cytokinesis (cell division).

  • Identify the phases of mitosis.

    Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, followed by Cytokinesis.

  • Describe characteristics of the human genome.

    Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), diploid cells, chromosomes are linear and packaged in the nucleus.

  • How is DNA packaged in the cell?

    DNA wraps around histones forming nucleosomes; chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

  • Difference between heterochromatin and euchromatin.

    Heterochromatin is tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive; euchromatin is loosely packed, active for transcription.

  • What effects do independent assortment and crossing over have during meiosis?

    They increase genetic variability by shuffling alleles and exchanging DNA between homologous chromosomes.

  • Compare mitosis and meiosis.

    Mitosis produces 2 identical diploid cells; meiosis produces 4 genetically unique haploid cells with recombination.