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Genetics and Molecular Biology Fundamentals in Microbiology

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이 집합의 용어 (25)

  • What is a genome?
    The genome is the entire collection of genetic material in a cell or virus.
  • Define gene.
    A gene is a sequence of DNA that encodes a functional product, such as a protein or RNA.
  • Difference between genotype and phenotype.
    Genotype is the inherited genetic makeup; phenotype is the observable physical and physiological traits.
  • How is genetic material organized in eukaryotic cells?
    Eukaryotic cells have numerous linear chromosomes in the nucleus, organized with histone proteins, plus plasmids and DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
  • How is genetic material organized in prokaryotic cells?
    Prokaryotes have 1-3 usually circular chromosomes in the nucleoid, organized by histone-like proteins, plus plasmids.
  • What are plasmids?
    Plasmids are extra-chromosomal DNA pieces in bacteria and some eukaryotes, often carrying antibiotic resistance genes.
  • What are the three parts of a nucleotide?
    A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), and a nitrogenous base.
  • Name the nitrogenous bases and their pairing in DNA.
    In DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C).
  • Which nitrogenous base replaces thymine in RNA?
    Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in RNA and pairs with adenine (A).
  • Describe the structure of DNA.
    DNA is a double-stranded antiparallel double helix with complementary base pairs held by hydrogen bonds and a sugar-phosphate backbone.
  • What is the directionality of DNA strands?
    DNA strands have 5’ to 3’ directionality; the two strands run antiparallel (one 5’→3’, the other 3’→5’).
  • How does RNA structure differ from DNA?
    RNA is usually single-stranded, contains ribose sugar, uses uracil instead of thymine, and can form loops and helices.
  • What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
    The central dogma describes genetic information flow: DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into protein.
  • What is semiconservative DNA replication?
    Each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.
  • Name the main enzymes involved in DNA replication and their functions.
    Helicase: unwinds DNA; Gyrase: relieves torsion; Primase: lays RNA primers; DNA Polymerase III: synthesizes DNA; DNA Polymerase I: replaces primers; Ligase: seals nicks.
  • Difference between leading and lagging strands in DNA replication.
    Leading strand is synthesized continuously toward the fork; lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously away from the fork in Okazaki fragments.
  • What happens during transcription?
    RNA polymerase copies DNA into RNA by binding to the promoter, elongating the RNA strand, and terminating at a stop sequence.
  • List the main types of RNA and their functions.
    mRNA: carries genetic code to ribosome; tRNA: brings amino acids; rRNA: forms ribosome and catalyzes peptide bonds.
  • Describe the process of translation.
    Ribosomes read mRNA codons; tRNA brings amino acids; polypeptide chains form starting at the start codon (AUG).
  • Types of mutations and their effects.
    Silent: no amino acid change; Missense: different amino acid; Nonsense: stop codon; Frameshift: shifts reading frame.
  • What are the mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria?
    Conjugation (DNA via pilus), transformation (uptake of free DNA), and transduction (DNA via bacteriophage).
  • What is vertical gene transfer?
    Passing genetic information from parent to offspring.
  • Name some pre-transcriptional gene regulation mechanisms.
    Operons, quorum sensing, DNA methylation, and transcription factor recruitment.
  • Name some post-transcriptional gene regulation mechanisms.
    Ribosome recruitment, mRNA stability control, small noncoding RNAs, riboswitches, and RNA processing.
  • Compare DNA and RNA in terms of strands, sugar, base, and location.
    DNA: double-stranded, deoxyribose, thymine, nucleus/nucleoid; RNA: single-stranded, ribose, uracil, cytoplasm/nucleus.