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Anatomy & Physiology: Blood, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Metabolism, Urinary, Fluid Balance, and Reproductive Systems

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  • Functions of blood
    Transportation of gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones; Regulation of pH, temperature, fluid balance; Protection via immune response and clotting.
  • Composition of blood
    Blood is 55% plasma (mostly water and proteins) and 45% formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, platelets).
  • Plasma proteins and their functions
    Albumins (54-60%) maintain blood volume by drawing water; Globulins (36-38%) transport fats and include antibodies; Fibrinogen (4-7%) is essential for clotting.
  • Erythropoiesis
    Process of RBC production from proerythroblasts in red bone marrow, stimulated by erythropoietin from kidneys.
  • Structure and function of erythrocytes
    Biconcave, anucleate cells containing hemoglobin that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
  • Hemoglobin composition and oxygen transport
    Hemoglobin has 4 polypeptide chains and 4 heme groups with iron ions that reversibly bind oxygen for transport.
  • Leukocytes classification
    Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; Agranulocytes: lymphocytes (T and B cells), monocytes.
  • Functions of neutrophils
    Phagocytize bacteria, release lysozyme, oxidants, and defensins to destroy pathogens.
  • Role of eosinophils
    Combat allergic reactions by releasing enzymes, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, and fight parasitic worms.
  • Basophils function
    Involved in inflammation by releasing heparin, histamine, and serotonin; contribute to hypersensitivity reactions.
  • Platelets (thrombocytes)
    Cell fragments that promote blood clotting by forming platelet plugs and releasing clotting chemicals.
  • Stages of hemostasis
    1) Vascular spasm; 2) Platelet plug formation; 3) Coagulation forming fibrin clot.
  • Intrinsic vs extrinsic coagulation pathways
    Intrinsic: activated by blood contact with damaged endothelium; Extrinsic: triggered by tissue factor from outside vessels; both converge to form prothrombinase.
  • Blood groups ABO system
    Based on A and B antigens on RBCs; types A, B, AB, and O with corresponding antibodies in plasma.
  • Rh blood group system
    Presence (Rh+) or absence (Rh-) of D antigen; Rh- individuals develop antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood.
  • Lymphatic system functions
    Drains interstitial fluid, transports dietary fats, and mediates immune responses.
  • Primary lymphatic organs
    Bone marrow (B cell maturation) and thymus gland (T cell maturation).
  • Secondary lymphatic organs
    Lymph nodes and spleen where immune responses occur.
  • Heart conduction system
    SA node initiates heartbeat; impulse travels to AV node, Bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers causing ventricular contraction.
  • Cardiac cycle phases
    Atrial systole (0.1s), ventricular systole (0.3s), and total heart relaxation (0.4s) in a 0.8s cycle at rest.
  • Respiratory system major organs
    Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
  • Boyle's Law in respiration
    At constant temperature, gas volume varies inversely with pressure; lung volume increase lowers pressure causing inspiration.
  • Gas composition of atmospheric air
    Approximately 78.6% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.5% water vapor, and 0.04% carbon dioxide.
  • Oxygen transport in blood
    Mostly bound to hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin; small amount dissolved in plasma.
  • Carbon dioxide transport in blood
    70% as bicarbonate ions, 23% bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin, 7% dissolved in plasma.
  • Digestive system main organs
    Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine.
  • Pancreatic digestive enzymes
    Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase (proteins); pancreatic lipase (fats); pancreatic amylase (carbohydrates).
  • Metabolism: anabolism vs catabolism
    Anabolism builds complex molecules using energy; catabolism breaks down molecules releasing energy.
  • Glycolysis overview
    Breakdown of glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules, net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
  • Electron transport chain function
    Uses NADH and FADH2 to pump protons and generate ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
  • Kidney nephron functions
    Filtration of blood, tubular reabsorption of nutrients and water, and tubular secretion of wastes.
  • Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
    Regulates blood pressure and volume by vasoconstriction and sodium/water retention.
  • Body fluid compartments
    Intracellular fluid (2/3 body water) and extracellular fluid (1/3 body water, includes plasma and interstitial fluid).
  • Major extracellular ions
    Sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-).
  • Major intracellular ions
    Potassium (K+), phosphate (PO4 3-), magnesium (Mg2+), and proteins.
  • Blood pH normal range and disorders
    Normal pH 7.35-7.45; acidosis <7.35 causes CNS depression; alkalosis >7.45 causes nervous system excitability.
  • Male reproductive system main components
    Testes, spermatic ducts, accessory glands, and penis.
  • Spermatogenesis process
    Spermatogonia undergo meiosis and differentiation to form mature spermatozoa.
  • Functions of Leydig and Sertoli cells
    Leydig cells produce testosterone; Sertoli cells support spermatogenesis and produce inhibin.
  • Female reproductive system main components
    Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands.
  • Oogenesis overview
    Primary oocytes arrested in prophase I until puberty; complete meiosis I to form secondary oocytes; meiosis II completes after fertilization.
  • Menstrual cycle phases
    Follicular phase (Day 1-14): follicle growth and ovulation; Luteal phase (Day 15-28): corpus luteum function and endometrium preparation.